Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada
syndrome
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada
syndrome
Modified from Wasay et al.,
419
with permission.
270
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
more so on the right side than the left. The lumbar
puncture pressure was 160 mm CSF. There were
two red cells, one white cell, and a protein of 41
mg/dL. The glucose was 75 mg/dL. Within 48
hours he became agitated and mildly aphasic,
with a right homonymous visual field defect. He
then had a generalized convulsion. The day fol-
lowing the seizure, the lumbar puncture pressure
was 230 mm CSF; there was one white cell, a
protein of 90 mg/dL, and glucose of 85 mg/dL. A
CT scan was normal, as were bilateral carotid ar-
teriograms. Cultures of blood and CSF for bacteria,
viruses, and viral titers were all negative, as was a
coagulation profile. Within 48 hours after the
convulsion, the patient lapsed into coma with ev-
idence of transtentorial herniation leading to re-
spiratory arrest and death despite treatment with
mannitol and steroids. At autopsy, the general ex-
amination was normal except for evidence of his
previous surgery. There was no evidence of resid-
ual cancer. The brain weighed 1,500 g and was
grossly swollen, with evidence of both temporal
lobe and tonsillar herniation and a Duret hemor-
rhage in the pons. Microscopic examination was
consistent with severe cerebral edema and herni-
ation, but there was no inflammation, nor were
there inclusion bodies.
Comment: Except for his age and a somewhat
protracted course, this patient is typical of patients
with acute toxic encephalopathy.
A clinical distinction between acute, spora-
dic viral encephalitis and acute, toxic enceph-
alopathy often cannot be made. Certain clues,
when present, help to differentiate the two
entities: acute encephalopathy appears with
or shortly after a banal viral infection, usually
occurs in children under 5 years of age, may be
associated with hypoglycemia and liver func-
tion abnormalities, and usually produces only
a modest degree of fever. Rapidly developing
increased ICP in the absence of focal signs or
neck stiffness also suggests acute toxic ence-
phalopathy. Conversely, prominent focal signs,
particularly those of temporal lobe dysfunction
accompanied by an abnormal CT or MRI, in-
dicate an acute viral encephalitis such as her-
pes simplex. The presence of pleocytosis (with
or without additional red cells) in the CSF
suggests acute viral encephalitis, whereas a
spinal fluid under very high pressure, but with
a normal cellular content, suggests acute toxic
encephalopathy. In many instances, however,
neither a clinical nor laboratory diagnosis can
be made immediately.
REYE’S SYNDROME
A variant of acute toxic encephalopathy is
Reye’s syndrome. This disorder seemed to ap-
pear out of nowhere in the 1950s and then,
except for rare reports, disappeared before
1990. In children it was believed to be pre-
cipitated by the use of aspirin to treat viral in-
fections. Whether this is true has been ques-
tioned.
423
This disorder, like other acute toxic
encephalopathies, was characterized by pro-
gressive encephalopathy with persistent vomi-
ting often following a viral illness (particularly
influenza B and varicella). It differs from other
forms of acute toxic encephalopathy in that it
occurred in epidemics and there was usually
evidence of hepatic dysfunction and often hy-
poglycemia. The illness was pathologically cha-
racterized by fatty degeneration of the viscera,
particularly the liver but also the kidney, heart,
lungs, pancreas, and skeletal muscle. The cause
of death in most cases, as in acute toxic en-
cephalopathy, was cerebral edema with trans-
tentorial and cerebellar herniation.
Parainfectious Encephalitis (Acute
Disseminated Encephalomyelitis)
Parainfectious disseminated encephalomyelitis
and acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalopathy
are terms applied to distinct but related clinical
and pathologic disorders, both of which are
probably caused by an immunologic reaction
either to the virus itself or to antigens exposed
due to viral injury. Another term for this dis-
order is acute disseminated encephalomyelitis
(ADEM). The same reaction can also be trig-
gered by vaccination and rarely by bacterial or
parasitic infection.
424,425
Two pathogenetic
mechanisms have been advanced. In the first,
the invading organism or vaccine is molecularly
similar to a brain protein (molecular mimicry),
but sufficiently different for the immune sys-
tem to recognize it as nonself and mount an
immune attack against the brain or spinal cord.
In the second, the virus invades the brain caus-
ing tissue damage and leakage of antigens into
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
271
the systemic circulation. Because the brain is a
relatively immune protected site, the immune
system may not have been exposed to the brain
protein before and it mounts an immune at-
tack.
424
Similar clinical and pathologic disorders
can be produced in experimental animals by the
injection of brain extracts of myelin basic pro-
tein mixed with appropriate adjuvants (experi-
mental allergic encephalomyelitis [EAE]) and
by Theiler virus.
424
Hemorrhagic changes ap-
pear to signify a hyperacute form of allergic en-
cephalomyelitis (see encephalomyelitis, below).
The disorder largely affects children, but adults
and even the elderly are sometimes affected.
The estimated incidence is 0.8 per 100,000
population per year.
424
Fifty to 75% of patients
have a febrile illness within the 30 days preced-
ing the onset of neurologic symptomatology.
In parainfectious disseminated encephalo-
myelitis, the brain and spinal cord contain mul-
tiple perivascular zones of demyelination in
which axis cylinders may be either spared or
destroyed. There is usually striking perivascular
cuffing by inflammatory cells. Clinically, the
illness occasionally arises spontaneously, but
usually it follows by several days a known or
presumed viral infection, frequently an exan-
them (e.g., rubella, varicella), but occasionally a
banal upper respiratory infection or another
common viral infection (e.g., mumps or herpes).
The onset is usually rapid, with headache and a
return of fever. In most cases, there is early
evidence of behavioral impairment, and as the
disorder progresses, the patient may lapse into
delirium, stupor, or coma. In one series of 26
patients, five (19%) were comatose.
426
Nuchal
rigidity may be present. Both focal and gener-
alized convulsions are common, as are focal
motor signs such as hemiplegia or paraplegia.
Careful examination often discloses evidence
for disseminated focal CNS dysfunction in the
form of optic neuritis, conjugate and dysconju-
gate eye movement abnormalities, and sensory
losses or motor impairment. In 80% of cases, the
CSF white cell count is elevated, usually to less
than 500 lymphocytes/mm
3
, but in the remain-
der there may be no elevation of CSF white
blood count. The CSF protein may be slightly
increased, but the glucose is normal. Oligoclo-
nal bands may be present, but are commonly
absent. In about one out of five patients, the
CSF is normal. MRI scanning usually discloses
multiple white matter lesions that are bright on
T2 and FLAIR imaging, and which may show
contrast enhancement. Sometimes gray matter
is involved as well as white matter, which may
explain the tendency for seizures to occur.
However, early in the course of the illness, the
MRI scan may be normal. We observed one
patient who became comatose during the first
few days of a severe attack, but whose MRI scan
was normal for another week, at which time it
progressed rapidly to diffuse T2 signal through-
out the white matter of the brain (Patient 4–4).
The diagnosis of acute disseminated encepha-
lomyelitis should be suspected when a patient
becomes neurologically ill following a systemic
viral infection or vaccination. Evidence of wide-
spread or multifocal nervous system involve-
ment and of mild lymphocytic meningitis sup-
ports the diagnosis. An MRI strongly supports
the diagnosis when it is consistent with multi-
focal areas of demyelination.
Acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalopathy is
considered a variant of encephalomyelitis.
427
However, a recent report suggests that organ-
isms may be found in the brains of patients who
die of the disorder. The organisms, measured
by PCR, include herpes simplex virus, herpes
zoster virus, and HHV-6. Whether the virus
itself or an immune reaction to it was causal was
unclear.
428
This disorder is marked pathologically by
inflammation and demyelination similar to dis-
seminated encephalomyelitis, plus widespread
hemorrhagic lesions in the cerebral white
matter. These latter vary in diameter from micro-
scopic to several centimeters and are accompa-
nied by focal necrosis and edema. The perivas-
cular infiltrations frequently contain many
neutrophils, and there is often perivascular fi-
brinous impregnation. The clinical course is as
violent as the pathologic response. The illness
may follow a banal viral infection or may com-
plicate septic shock, but often no such history
isobtained.Theillnessbeginsabruptlywithhead-
ache, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Affected pa-
tients rapidly lapse into coma with high fever
but little or no nuchal rigidity. Convulsions and
focal neurologic signs, especially hemiparesis,
are common. Focal cerebral hemorrhages and
edema may produce both the clinical and radio-
graphic signs of a supratentorial mass lesion.
The CSF is usually under increased pressure
and contains from 10 to 500 mononuclear cells
and up to 1,000 red blood cells/mm
3
. The CSF
protein may be elevated to 100 to 300 mg/dL
or more.
272
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
As a rule, the problem in the differential
diagnosis of coma presented by disseminated
and hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis is to dis-
tinguish it from viral encephalitis and acute
toxic encephalopathy. At times a distinction
may be impossible, either clinically or virolog-
ically. As a general rule, patients with viral
encephalitis tend to be more severely ill and
have higher fevers for longer periods of time
than patients with disseminated encephalomy-
elitis, with the exception of the hemorrhagic
variety. Acute toxic encephalopathy usually is
more acute in onset and is associated with
higher ICP and with fewer focal neurologic
signs, either clinically or radiographically.
Cerebral Biopsy for Diagnosis
of Encephalitis
When faced with a delirious or stuporous pa-
tient suspected of suffering acute encephalitis,
the physician is often perplexed about how
best to proceed. The clinical pictures of the
various forms of encephalitis are often so
similar that only cerebral biopsy will distin-
guish them, but the treatment of the various
forms differs. Of the acute viral encephalitides,
herpes simplex can be effectively treated by
antiviral agents, and it is likely that in some
immune-suppressed patients other viral in-
fections such as varicella-zoster and cytomeg-
alovirus also respond to antiviral treatment.
Acute toxic encephalitis does not respond to
antiviral treatment but, at least in Reye’s syn-
drome, meticulous monitoring and control of
ICP is effective therapy. Acute parainfectious
encephalomyelitis is not reported to respond
to either antiviral treatment or control of ICP,
but often does respond to steroids or immu-
nosuppressive agents.
Weighing the pros and cons, we tentatively
conclude that when noninvasive imaging (MRI,
MRS, PET) and other tests (CSF PCR for orga-
nisms, cytology, oligoclonal bands, and immune
globulins) are unrevealing, the risk of biopsy is
often small compared to the risk of missing
treatment for a specific diagnosis. If there is a
focal lesion, a stereotactic needle biopsy will
often suffice.
429,430
If there is no focal lesion, an
open biopsy, ensuring that one procures lepto-
meninges and gray and white matter,
431
is re-
quired. The biopsy should be taken either from
an involved area, or if the illness is diffuse, from
the right frontal or temporal lobe. Complicat-
ions of either stereotactic or open biopsy are
uncommon. However, nondiagnostic biopsies
are common. In one series of 90 brain biopsies
for evaluation of dementia, only 57% were di-
agnostic.
431
However, in this and other studies,
the biopsy sometimes identified treatable ill-
nesses such as multiple sclerosis, Whipple’s dis-
ease, cerebral vasculitis, or paraneoplastic en-
cephalopathy.
431,432
CEREBRAL VASCULITIS AND
OTHER VASCULOPATHIES
Certain inflammatory vascular disorders of the
brain are either restricted to CNS vessels (e.g.,
granulomatous angiitis) or produce such pro-
minent CNS symptoms as to appear to be
primarily a brain disorder.
433
Recent reviews
classify and detail the clinical and arterio-
graphic findings in a large number of illnesses
that produce cerebral or systemic vasculitis
(Table 5–21). Only those specific illnesses that
may be perplexing causes of stupor or coma
are considered here.
Granulomatous Central Nervous
System Angiitis
In this acute disorder of the nervous system,
the pathologic changes in blood vessels may be
limited to the brain or involve other systemic
organs. When the disease is limited to the
brain, it tends to affect small leptomeningeal
and intracerebral blood vessels. When more
widespread, it affects larger blood vessels.
Even when the disease is extracerebral, it can
affect the blood supply of the brain, producing
acute neurologic symptomatology including
coma.
434
The cause of granulomatous angiitis
restricted to the nervous system is unknown
and possibly multifactorial. The disorder has
been associated with herpes zoster infection,
lymphomas, sarcoidosis, amyloid angiopathy,
and infections by mycoplasma, rickettsia, viru-
ses, and Borrelia burgdorferi.
435
Because the
inflammatory lesions can involve blood vessels
of any size, the disease can cause large or small
infarcts.
Clinically, the onset is usually acute or sub-
acute with headache, mental changes, impair-
Multifocal, Diffuse, and Metabolic Brain Diseases Causing Delirium, Stupor, or Coma
273
ment of consciousness, focal or generalized
seizures, and frequently focal neurologic signs
including hemiparesis, visual loss, and extra-
pyramidal disorders. Patients who are usually
alert at onset can rapidly progress to stupor
or coma. Untreated, the disease may be fatal.
More benign forms of the disorder also exist,
including those that are chronic and progres-
sive over months or years, those that recover
completely, and those that show a relapsing
course.
436,437
In those patients who recover, the
original angiographic abnormalities reverse.
437
The laboratory examination is usually but
not always characterized by an elevated blood
erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) as op-
posed to systemic granulomatous angiitis, in
which the blood ESR is nearly always elevated.
There is mild CSF pleocytosis (20 to 40 lym-
phocytes/mm
3
) with an elevated total protein
and an increased gamma-globulin level. MR
angiography often fails to identify signs of
vascular involvement unless there are irregu-
larities of the larger vessels. Conventional ce-
rebral angiography is more sensitive, but still
will only identify irregularity of vessels of 1 mm
or larger. In addition, the pattern of irregu-
larity does not verify the underlying pathology,
but only indicates areas at which biopsy may
be fruitful. The specific diagnosis can only be
established by cerebral biopsy, but because
the lesions are often multifocal but not diffuse,
at times even that fails to demonstrate the pa-
thology. Immunosuppression is sometimes ef-
fective, but some patients relapse while on
maintenance therapy or when therapy is with-
drawn.
436
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Systemic vasculitis occurs in 10% to 15% of
patients with systemic lupus erythematosus
(SLE) often early in the course of the disease,
but there is no evidence of cerebral vasculitis in
this condition.
438
Nevertheless, acute neuro-
logic dysfunction, including seizures, delirium,
and occasionally cerebral infarcts, stupor or
coma, may complicate the course of SLE.
439
The pathophysiology of these disturbances is
not well understood, but may reflect the effects
of autoantibodies against brain or cerebral blood
vessels, or perhaps the effects of cytokines in-
duced by an immune attack on body tissues. For
example, antiphospholipid antibodies are com-
mon in SLE, and may be a cause of venous
thrombi or arterial emboli that produce cerebral
infarcts. In addition, the deposition of fibrin-
platelet thrombi on heart valves (Libman-Sachs
endocarditis) suggests a hypercoagulable state.
The CNS disorder may occur early in the course
of the systemic disease or even preceding sys-
temic diagnosis.
440
The clinical onset of CNS lupus is abrupt,
often with seizures and/or delirium and some-
times accompanied by focal neurologic signs.
Most patients have fever; some have papille-
Table 5–21 Classification of Vasculi-
tides That Affect the Nervous System
Systemic necrotizing arteritis
Polyarteritis nodosa
Churg-Strauss syndrome
Microscopic polyangiitis
Hypersensitivity vasculitis
Henoch-Scho¨nlein purpura
Hypocomplementemic vasculitis
Cryoglobulinemia
Systemic granulomatous vasculitis
Wegener granulomatosis
Lymphomatoid granulomatosa
Lethal midline granuloma
Giant cell arteritis
Temporal arteritis
Takayasu arteritis
Granulomatous angiitis of the nervous system
Connective tissue disorders associated with
vasculitis
System lupus erythematosus
Scleroderma
Rheumatoid arthritis
Sjo¨gren syndrome
Mixed connective tissue disease
Behc¸et’s disease
Inflammatory diabetic vasculopathy
Isolated peripheral nervous system vasculitis
Vasculitis associated with infection
Varicella zoster virus
Spirochetes
Treponema pallidum
Borrelia burgdorferi
Fungi
Rickettsia
Bacterial meningitis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
HIV-1
Central nervous system vasculitis associated
with amphetamine abuse
Paraneoplastic vasculitis
From Younger,
433
with permission.
274
Plum and Posner’s Diagnosis of Stupor and Coma
dema and elevations of CSF pressure on lum-
bar puncture. The spinal fluid contents are
usually normal, but in about 30% of patients,
the CSF is abnormal with a modest pleocytosis
and/or an elevated protein concentration (lu-
pus cerebritis). The EEG is usually abnormal,
with either diffuse or multifocal slow-wave ac-
tivity. The CT or MRI is usually normal, as is
angiography. The diagnosis should be consid-
ered in any febrile patient, particularly a young
woman with undiagnosed delirium or stupor,
especially if complicated by seizures. The di-
agnosis is supported by systemic findings,
particularly a history of arthritis and arthralgia
(88%), skin rash (79%), and renal disease
(48%), and is established by laboratory evalu-
ation. Ninety percent of patients with nervous
system involvement by lupus have antinuclear
antibodies in their serum; lupus erythematosus
cells are present in 79%, and there is hypo-
complementemia in 64%. Anti-DNA antibodies
and other autoantibodies are common. How-
ever, many of these findings may be absent if
the lupus is restricted to the CNS. Even when
the diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus
is established, one must be careful not to attri-
bute all neurologic abnormalities that develop
directly to the lupus. In patients with lupus, neu-
rologic disability can be caused by uremia or in-
tercurrent CNS infection.
441
A special concern
is that SLE is usually treated with high doses of
glucocorticoids, which themselves can produce
a delirious state (steroid psychosis). It can be
difficult to distinguish this condition from the
underlying SLE, but even though the response
is more common at doses of prednisone greater
than 40 mg/day, there is little if any evidence
that decreasing the steroid dose shortens this
idiosyncratic response.
442
Hence, the usual rec-
ommendation is to treat the SLE as medically
necessary, and to give neuroleptic medication to
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