The Reciprocity Ring
When I joined the faculty at Wharton, the world’s oldest collegiate business school, I decided to try a
giving experiment in my classroom. I announced that we would be running an exercise called the
Reciprocity Ring, which was developed by University of Michigan sociologist Wayne Baker and his
wife Cheryl at Humax. Each student would make a request to the class, and the rest of the class would
try to use their knowledge, resources, and connections to help fulfill the request. The request could be
anything meaningful in their professional or personal lives, ranging from job leads to travel tips.
In a matter of minutes, I was facing a line of students—some cynical, others anxious. One student
pronounced that the exercise wouldn’t work, because there aren’t any givers at Wharton: givers study
medicine or social work, not business. Another admitted that he would love advice from more
experienced peers on strengthening his candidacy for consulting jobs, but he knew they wouldn’t help
him, since they were competing with him for these positions.
Soon, these students watched in disbelief as their peers began to use their networks to help one
another. A junior named Alex announced that he loved amusement parks, and he came to Wharton in
the hopes of one day running Six Flags. He wasn’t sure how to get started—could anyone help him
break into the industry? A classmate, Andrew, raised his hand and said he had a weak tie to the
former CEO of Six Flags. Andrew went out on a limb to connect them, and a few weeks later, Alex
received invaluable career advice from the ex-CEO. A senior named Michelle confided that she had a
friend whose growth was stunted due to health problems, and couldn’t find clothes that fit. A fellow
senior, Jessica, had an uncle in the fashion business, and she contacted him for help. Three months
later, custom garments arrived at the doorstep of Michelle’s friend.
Wayne Baker has led Reciprocity Rings at many companies, from GM to Bristol-Myers Squibb.
Oftentimes, he brings leaders and managers together from competing companies in the same industry
and invites them to make requests and help one another. In one session, a pharmaceutical executive
was about to pay an outside vendor $50,000 to synthesize a strain of the PCS alkaloid. The executive
asked if anyone could help find a cheaper alternative. One of the group members happened to have
slack capacity in his lab, and was able to do it for free.
The Reciprocity Ring can be an extremely powerful experience. Bud Ahearn, a group president at
CH2M HILL, noted that leaders in his company “are strong endorsers, not only because of the
hundreds of thousands of annual dollar value, but because of the remarkable potential to advance the
quality of our ‘whole’ lives.” Baker has asked executives to estimate the dollar value and time saved
in participating for two and a half hours. Thirty people in an engineering and architectural consulting
firm estimated savings exceeding $250,000 and fifty days. Fifteen people in a global pharmaceutical
firm estimated savings of more than $90,000 and sixty-seven days.
Personally, after running the Reciprocity Ring with leaders, managers, and employees from
companies such as IBM, Citigroup, Estée Lauder, UPS, Novartis, and Boeing, I’ve been amazed by
the requests that have been fulfilled—from landing a coveted job at Google to finding a mentor to
receiving autographed memorabilia from a child’s favorite professional football player. But before
this happens, just as my Wharton students did, many participants question whether others will actually
give them the help that they need. Each time, I respond by asking whether they might be
underestimating the givers
in their midst.
In a study by researchers Frank Flynn and Vanessa Bohns, people learned that they would be
approaching strangers in New York City and asking them to a fill out a survey. The participants
estimated that only one out of every four people would say yes. In reality, when the participants went
out and asked, one out of every two said yes. In another study in New York City, when participants
approached strangers and asked them to borrow a cell phone, they expected 30 percent to say yes, but
48 percent did. When people approached strangers, said they were lost and asked to be walked to a
nearby gym, they expected 14 percent to do it, but 43 percent did. And when people needed to raise
thousands of dollars for charity, they expected that they would need to solicit donations from an
average of 210 people to meet their fund-raising goals, anticipating an average donation under $50.
They actually hit their goals after approaching half as many people—on average, it only required 122
people, whose donations were over $60 each.
Why do we underestimate the number of people who are willing to give? According to Flynn and
Bohns, when we try to predict others’ reactions, we focus on the costs of saying yes, overlooking the
costs of saying no. It’s uncomfortable, guilt-provoking, and embarrassing to turn down a small request
for help. And psychological research points to another factor—equally powerful, and deeply rooted
in American culture—that causes people to believe there aren’t many givers around them.
Workplaces and schools are often designed to be zero-sum environments, with forced rankings
and required grading curves that pit group members against one another in win-lose contests. In these
settings, it’s
only natural to assume
that peers will lean in the taker direction, so people hold back on
giving. This reduces the actual amount of giving that occurs, leading people to underestimate the
number of people who are interested in giving. Over time, because giving appears to be uncommon,
people with giver values begin to feel that they’re in the minority.
As a result, even when they do engage in giving behaviors, people worry that they’ll isolate
themselves socially if they violate the norm, so they disguise their giving behind purely self-interested
motives. As early as 1835, after visiting the United States from France, the social philosopher Alexis
de Tocqueville wrote that Americans “enjoy
explaining almost every act of their lives on the
principle of self-interest
.” He saw Americans “help one another” and “freely give part of their time
and wealth for the good of the state,” but was struck by the fact that “Americans are hardly prepared
to admit” that these acts were driven by a genuine desire to help others. “I think that in this way they
often do themselves less than justice,” he wrote. A century and a half later, the Princeton sociologist
Robert Wuthnow interviewed a wide range of Americans who chose helping professions, from
cardiologists to rescue workers. When he asked them to explain why they did good deeds, they
referenced self-interested reasons, such as “I liked the people I was working with” or “It gets me out
of the house.” They didn’t want to admit that they were genuinely helpful, kind, generous, caring, or
compassionate. “We have
social norms against sounding too charitable
,” Wuthnow writes, such that
“we call people who go around acting too charitable ‘bleeding hearts,’ ‘do-gooders.’”
In my experience, this is what happens in many businesses and universities: plenty of people hold
giver values, but suppress or disguise them under the mistaken assumption that their peers don’t share
these values. As the psychologists David Krech and Richard Crutchfield explained many years ago,
this creates a situation where “
no one believes
, but everyone thinks that everyone believes.” Consider
a 2011 survey of
Harvard freshmen
: they consistently reported that compassion was one of their top
values, but near the bottom of Harvard’s values. If many people personally believe in giving, but
assume that others don’t, the whole norm in a group or a company can shift away from giving. “
Ideas
can have profound effects
even when they are false—when they are nothing more than ideology,”
writes the psychologist Barry Schwartz. “These effects can arise because sometimes when people act
on the basis of ideology, they inadvertently arrange the very conditions that bring reality into
correspondence with the ideology.” When people assume that others aren’t givers, they act and speak
in ways that discourage others from giving, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy.
As a structured form of giving, the Reciprocity Ring is designed to disrupt this self-fulfilling
prophecy. The first step is to make sure that people ask for help. Research shows that at work, the
vast majority of giving that occurs between people is in response to direct requests for help. In one
study, managers described times when they gave and received help. Of all the giving exchanges that
occurred, roughly 90 percent were initiated by the recipient asking for help. Yet when we have a
need, we’re often reluctant to ask for help. Much of the time, we’re embarrassed: we don’t want to
look incompetent or needy, and we don’t want to burden others. As one Wharton dean explains, “The
students call it Game Face: they feel pressured to look successful all the time. There can’t be any
chinks in their armor, and opening up would make them vulnerable.”
In the Reciprocity Ring, because everyone is making a request, there’s little reason to be
embarrassed. By making requests explicit and specific, participants provide potential givers with
clear direction about how to contribute effectively. As in Freecycle, the Reciprocity Ring often starts
with givers stepping up as role models for contributions. But in every Reciprocity Ring, there are
likely to be many matchers and some people who prefer to operate as takers. For a generalized giving
system to achieve sustainable effectiveness, as in Freecycle, these matchers and takers need to
contribute. Otherwise, the givers will end up helping everyone while receiving little in return, placing
themselves at risk for getting burned or burning out. Do matchers and takers step up?
Because people often present meaningful requests in Reciprocity Rings, many matchers are drawn
in by empathy. When I heard a powerful CEO’s voice tremble as he sought advice and connections to
fight a rare form of cancer, the empathy in the room was palpable. “I was surprised by how much I
wanted to help,” one financial services executive confides. “My job requires me to be very task-
focused and financially oriented. I didn’t expect to care that much, especially about a stranger I’d
never met. But I really felt for his need, and wanted to do whatever I could to contribute and fulfill his
request.”
Even when they don’t empathize, matchers still end up making plenty of contributions. It’s very
difficult to act like a pure matcher in the
Reciprocity Ring
, since it’s unlikely that the people you help
will be the same people who can help fulfill your request. So the easiest way to be a matcher is to try
to contribute the same amount that other people do. The Reciprocity Ring creates a miniature version
of Panda Adam Rifkin’s network: participants are encouraged to do five-minute favors for anyone
else in the group. To make sure that every request is granted, participants need to make multiple
contributions, even to people who haven’t helped them directly. By giving more than they take,
participants amplify the odds that everyone in the group will have their requests fulfilled, much like
Panda Adam setting a pay-it-forward norm in his network.
But what about the takers? Many audiences are concerned that takers will capitalize on the
opportunity to get help without contributing in return. To examine this risk, Wayne Baker and I
surveyed more than a hundred people about their giver and taker values. Then they participated in the
Reciprocity Ring, and we counted the number of contributions they made. As expected, the givers
made significantly more contributions than the takers. The givers averaged four contributions each.
Surprisingly, though, the takers were still quite generous, averaging three contributions each.
Despite valuing power and achievement far more than helping others, the takers gave three times
more than they got. The Reciprocity Ring created a context that encouraged takers to act like givers,
and the key lies in making giving public. Takers know that in a public setting, they’ll gain
reputational
benefits
for being generous in sharing their knowledge, resources, and connections. If they don’t
contribute, they look stingy and selfish, and they won’t get much help with their own requests. “Being
altruistic is often seen as ‘good,’ and being greedy or selfish is not,” writes Duke behavioral
economist Dan Ariely with two colleagues, so giving is “a way to signal to others that one is good.”
Research shows that givers usually contribute regardless of whether it’s public or private, but
takers are more likely to contribute when it’s public. In one study, when others could see their results,
takers contributed a large number of ideas during
brainstorming
. But when their results were hidden,
takers added less value. Other studies reveal that takers
go green to be seen
: they prefer luxurious
products over green products when their decisions are private, but shift to green products when their
decisions are public, hoping to earn status for protecting the environment. I saw a similar trend among
Wharton students: each week in class, I opened the floor for a few students to present requests and
invited the whole class to contribute. One November morning, five students made requests, and I was
stunned to see a student who had described himself as a taker offer to help four of them. Once his
reputation among his peers depended on giving, he contributed. By making contributions visible, the
Reciprocity Ring sets up an opportunity for people of any reciprocity style to be otherish: they can do
good and look good at the same time.
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