Questions 1-10 Complete the table below. Write one word and / or a number

READING PASSAGE-2 
You should spend about 20 minutes on 
Questions 14-26,
 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below. 
The Truth about Lying 
A
An area of scientific study that caught the public imagination during the 1970s 
involved a gorilla called Koko. Animal psychologist Francine Patterson claimed to 
have taught Koko a simplified form of American Sign Language, and through singing, 
Koko could apparently communicate basic ideas such as ‘food’ and ‘more’, as well as 
concepts such as ‘good’ and ‘sorry’. But Koko also used signs to blame other people 
for damage she had caused herself. While today there is some dispute about 
whether Koko truly understood the meaning of all the signs she made, Professor 
Karen Goodger believes she was certainly capable of dishonesty. ‘People use words 
to lie, but for animals with higher brain functions, there’s also a higher probability 
that they’ll demonstrate manipulative behaviours. We see this not just in gorillas, 
but in other creatures with a large neocortex.’ 
B
Human societies may appear to disapprove of lying, but that doesn’t mean we 
don’t all do it. And it seems that the ability, or at least the desire to deceive, starts 
from an early age. In one study run by psychologist Kang Lee, children were 
individually brought into a laboratory and asked to face a wall. They were asked to 
guess what toy one of Lee’s fellow researchers had placed on a table behind them – 
for example, a fluffy cat or dog. The researcher would then announce they had to 
leave the lab to take a phone call, reminding the child not to turn around. The 
research team were well aware that many children would be unable to resist 
peeking at the toy. Secret cameras showed that 30% of two-year-old children lied 
about not looking. This went up to 50% for three-year-olds and almost 80% of eight-
year-olds. Interestingly, whereas the younger children simply named the toy and 
denied taking a peek, the older ones came up with some interesting reasons to 
explain how they had identified the toy correctly. Lee is reassured by this trend, 
seeing it as evidence in each case that the cognitive growth of a human child is 
progressing as it should. Parents, of course, may not be so pleased. 
C
Adults, however, can hardly criticise children. According to Professor Richard 
Wiseman, it appears that adults typically tell two major lies per day, and that one 
third of adult conversations contain an element of dishonesty. Other research 
indicates that spouses lie in one out of every 10 interactions. This probably comes 
as no surprise to Tali Sharot at University College London, who has run a series of 
experiments proving we become desensitised to lying over time. She has found that 
while we might initially experience a sense of shame about small lies, this feeling 
eventually wears off. The result, Sharot has found, is that we progress to more 
serious ones.
D
Other researchers, including Tim Levine at the University of Alabama, have 
analysed our motives for lying. By far the most common is our desire to cover up 
our own wrongdoing. Second to this are lies we tell to gain economic advantage – 
we might lie during an interview to increase the chances of getting a job. 
Interestingly, ‘white lies’, the kind we tell to avoid hurting people’s feelings, account 
only for a small percentage of our untruths. But if we recognise our own tendency 
to lie, why don’t we recognise it in others? Professor Goodger thinks it has 
something to do with our strong desire for certain information we hear to be true, 
even when we might suspect it isn’t. This is because we might be ‘comforted by 
others’ lies or excited by the promise of a good outcome’, Goodger says. 
E
We might not expect ordinary people to be good at recognising lies, but what 
about people whose job it is to investigate the behavior of others? Paul Erkman is a 
psychologist from the University of California. As part of his research into deception, 
he has invited a range of experts to view videos of people telling lies and of others 
telling the truth. Among the experts have been judges, psychiatrists and people who 
operate polygraph machines for police investigations. None of these experts have 
shown they can detect dishonestly any better than people without their experience.