Long-Run Dynamic
Short-Run Dynamic
Dependent Variable: elec (A)
Dependent Variable: Delec (B)
Variables
Coefficients
Variables
Coefficients
p
−
0.29 *** (0.027)
-
-
imp
0.18 *** (0.056)
Dp
−
0.13 * (0.073)
y
1.35 *** (0.145)
Dimp
−
0.15 *** (0.061)
y
2
−
1.85 *** (0.541)
Dimp(
−
1)
−
0.05 (0.060)
y
3
−
6.13 *** (1.443)
Dimp(
−
2)
−
0.11 ** (0.057)
c
−
1.16 *** (0.049)
Dy
0.79 ** (0.333)
I
87
−
0.13 *** (0.054)
Dy(
−
1)
−
0.05 (0.184)
I
94-02
0.15 *** (0.035)
Dy
2
−
1.03 (1.23)
trend
0.05 *** (0.002)
Dy
3
5.60 (7.113)
-
-
C
0.05 *** (0.009)
-
-
I
87
−
0.14 *** (0.048)
-
-
ECT(
−
1)
0.43 *** (0.166)
LM-test [p-value]
1.38 [0.26]
LM-test [p-value]
0.085 [0.91]
Arch-test [p-value]
1.05 [0.31]
Arch-test [p-value]
0.10 [0.74]
DW
1.47
DW
1.89
-
-
Normality-test [p-value]
0.78 [0.67]
F-Stat
867.58
F-Stat
4.36
Note: Standard errors in brackets. ***, ** and * denote statistical significance at the 1%, 5% and 10% levels,
respectively. AIC and SC are used to select the optimal lags in the ARDL-model.
Column (B) in Table
4
shows the short-run estimate. The coefficient of the estimated error
correction coefficient (ECM
t−1)
appears negative and statistically significant at 1%, with a high value
equal to
−
0.43.
The short-run estimate results also show that the coefficient related to GDP per capita is positive
and significant, and that the residential electricity use elasticity with respect to the electricity prices
is negative and statistically significant. This means that increasing the electricity prices will reduce
the residential electricity consumption in Algeria, in the short term. Nevertheless, the coefficient is
less than one, and is therefore considered price inelastic. This result is in line with previous studies
that find negative and less than one short-run price elasticities, as for example in Donatos and
Mergos [
71
], Silk and Joutz [
24
], and Athukorala and Wilson [
32
]. Additionally, the results show that
the short-run electricity use elasticity, with respect to imports, is negative and significant. Therefore,
increasing imports have been reducing residential electricity consumption in the short-run. In that
regard, it may be possible that imports of goods have allowed, in the short term, the replacement of
less energy-efficient goods with others that are more efficient.
Column (A) in Table
4
shows the results obtained by normalizing per capita residential energy
use in the long run The elasticity with respect to GDP per capita in the central point of the sample is
positive and statically significant, being equal to 1.35. These results are in line with those obtained by
Zaman et al. [
50
], Bélaïd and Abderrahmani [
15
], and Kamaludin [
72
]. Nevertheless, the squared and
cubed GDP per capita estimated coefficients are negative and significant. Therefore, the residential
electricity consumption elasticity with respect to GDP per capita is not constant through the studied
period, varying with GDP per capita. In addition, as these coefficients are negative, the relationships
between electricity use and GDP (in per capita terms) present an inverted N-shape curve. However,
in order to determine if the second turning point has been reached, it is necessary to calculate and
study the first derivative of the residential electricity consumption function in the long-run, to find the
maximum point of the function. The first derivative is the residential electricity consumption elasticity
to GDP. Therefore if the elasticity value is zero, and the second derivative is negative (elasticity goes
from positive to negative values), then the second thresholds of the inverted N-shape curve is obtained.
Figure
2
shows the elasticity values with respect to the GDP per capita log value. It is worth noting that
Energies 2018, 11, 1656
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elasticity becomes zero for GDP per capita values equal to 8.39 in logs (about 4400 constant 2010 US$).
Therefore, the second turning point of the inverted N-shape curve is reached when GDP per capita
equals 4400 constant 2010 US$. This value was reached for the Algerian economy in 2010.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
10 of 18
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