semantic classification of words slide basic principles of grouping words

7. SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GROUPING WORDS
There are two basic principles of grouping words together according to the properties of their content side.
To classify words proceeding from the basic types of semantic relations. To group words together starting off with associations connecting the given words with other vocabulary units.
According to these principles of classifying linguistic units the following semantic classes (or categories) can be singled out: 1) synonyms; 2) antonyms; 3) lexical and terminological sets; 4) lexico-semantic groups; 5) semantic fields.
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2. SYNONYMY
Synonymy is the kind of semantic relations that implies the coincidence in the essential meanings of linguistic elements, which usually preserve their differences in connotations and stylistic characteristics. Synonymy does not present a perfect type of a linguistic category. In human languages equivalence of meaning is hardly ever observed because no two words are absolutely identical in their meanings, connotations, ways of usage, register features, or frequency of occurrence.
SYNONYMS

Synonyms are usually defined as words belonging to one part of speech, close in meaning and interchangeable at least in some contexts. Synonyms are characterized by either the semantic relations of equivalence or by semantic relations of proximity. As a degree of semantic proximity can be different, different types of synonyms can be singled out. Full (total) synonyms, i.e. words characterized by semantic equivalence, are extremely rare.

The degree of semantic proximity is best of all estimated in terms of the aspect of meaning, i.e. the denotational, the connotational, and the pragmatic aspect.
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The highest degree of proximity is observed in synonyms which have similar denotational aspects but differ either in the connotational or pragmatic aspect of meaning.
The difference in connotation may be illustrated by the words famous meaning ‘known widely, having fame’ and the word notorious which is defined as ‘widely known because of something bad, for instance, for being criminal, violent, immoral’. Thus, the word famous implies a positive emotive evaluation, and the word notorious – negative.
The difference in the pragmatic value of words is found in a far greater number of words than the difference in the connotational aspect. It can be observed in synonymic pairs consisting of a native and a borrowed word. In most cases the native word is more informal, whereas the foreign word has a learned or abstract air, cf.: brotherly – fraternal, bodily – corporal. In a few cases these synonymic values are reversed, for example, deed – action, foe – enemy.