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nies) (Hafez 2004, 215). With a stronger legal framework, the proper
enforcement of Article 5 could eliminate many of these NTBs. However,
the WTO has not provided AFTA with the legal fortitude necessary to
remove NTBs. The current moderate GATT requirements for South-South
RTAs allow member-states to succumb to domestic political pressures that
support enacting NTBs.
South-South RTA regulations under the GATT have also failed to
include a strict provision concerning transparency. Nontransparent regula-
tion of trade in South-South RTAs encourages deceptive practices, which
eventually restrict flows of intra-regional trade and deters foreign direct
investment (FDI). The WTO maintains its transparency through various
provisions, but does not require South-South RTAs to follow suit. For
example, AFTA’s transparency, when compared to that of the WTO, has
not been properly established. Under Article X of the GATT, regulations
must be made readily available to traders and laws must be uniformly
administered (Hafez 2004, 217). AFTA does not have an article outlin-
ing practices for publishing and administering laws (Hafez 2004, 217).
This disregard for transparent regulation has led to the development of
bureaucratic red tape, heightened corruption, and discouraged investors
(Hafez 2004, 218). Unfortunately, flows of both intra-regional trade and
foreign investment rely on the efficiency and reliability afforded by trans-
parent regulation. For potential investors, AFTA’s exclusion of rules on
transparency limits the credibility of its mandate (Hafez 2004, 218). Thus,
AFTA’s underdeveloped legal infrastructure for trade regulations hinders
its ability to achieve its goals of attracting FDI (Kaplan 1995, 148) and
reducing barriers to intra-regional trade.
Clearly, barriers to trade have not been steadily removed through the
unstructured, less transparent and more personalized “ASEAN way” of
conducting negotiations (Davidson 1996, 596). Consistent tariff-reduction
and the uniform removal of barriers to trade have also been constrained by
AFTA’s haphazard method of resolving disputes between member-states.
Since its inception, ASEAN has been unable to develop an apolitical dispute
settlement mechanism to enforce specific schedules of trade liberalization
or restrict the creation of barriers to trade. A supra-national law-making
or decision-making organ that could implement AFTA protocols, solve
disputes, and implement community law could limit the hesitancy of in-
dividual countries to abide by the terms of agreements (Tan 2004, 949).
To create such an enforcement body, ASEAN would have to overcome the
past unwillingness of its member countries to form community law for the
region (Tan 2004, 952). Moreover, international lawmakers would have to
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deal with the region’s immense diversity of legal systems. Civil law, common
law, and hybrids of both are found in the region (Tan 2004, 952).
It would be a challenge for AFTA members to establish a strong legal
framework to support their agreement. The current Protocol of Dispute
Settlement Mechanism is highly politicized. Under the protocol, parties
in a dispute face a diplomatic-political body called the ASEAN Senior
Economic Officials Meeting, which has the final decision in any AFTA
dispute (Hafez 2004, 240). This body does not represent diverse legal
traditions and appears to focus on domestic political concerns instead of
making consistent supra-national decisions. These politicized facets of
dispute resolution have developed because the multilateral trading system
has not made dispute settlement an imperative element in the South-South
integrative processes. The WTO does not provide South-South RTAs with
stipulations requiring dispute settlements or a working supra-national legal
system which could enforce tariff reductions.
A legal framework with a dispute settlement body is also effective for
continued integration. As AFTA pursues further integration, the absence
of a dispute settlement mechanism could limit the transparency of the
integration process and exacerbate domestic political insecurities. Most
recently, ASEAN has proposed a European-style single market by 2015
(Lingga 2006). A notable characteristic of the EC is their well-established
legal framework. The WTO could encourage South-South integration
projects, such as AFTA’s single market, by promoting strong legal frame-
works. These frameworks could include schedules of tariff reductions
enforced by dispute settlement bodies within South-South trading blocs
or through the WTO.
In the future, AFTA’s integration process may be challenged by the En-
abling Clause’s inability to manage contemporary aspects of South-South
RTAs. Currently, the Enabling Clause only sanctions unregimented sched-
ules of tariff reductions for developing countries. However, several ASEAN
member-states have approached or are approaching a stage of economic
development which is above the level of a “newly industrializing country.”
The WTO has never obligated developed countries in ASEAN to graduate
from their initial status under the Enabling Clause (Davidson 1993, 598).
Yet countries who are developed and not part of AFTA must accept the
MFN obligations under GATT 1994 in full. For example, Singapore, as a
developed member of AFTA, does have to award MFN treatment. This poses
the question: Is the AFTA scheme compatible with the GATT obligations
for all parties? The provisions of the Enabling Clause are only available
to global or regional arrangements “entered into amongst less-developed
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contraction parties” (Davidson 1993, 607). Certainly, developed countries
can award preferential treatment to goods from developing countries, but
the reverse is not permissible (Davidson 1993, 607). Therefore, one can
reason that Singapore should not be permitted to be a member of AFTA
under the Enabling Clause (Davidson 1993, 607).
If AFTA is to continue under GATT rulings, the WTO will have to
consider how to transfer Singapore out of the agreement without harming
the level of trade that has been achieved thus far. Currently, AFTA is stalling
on the issue of further liberalization. Thus, Singapore has opted to move
beyond AFTA and engage in multiple bilateral agreements (Hafez 2004,
603). The WTO’s inability to offer a proper mode of transition for Singapore
could cost AFTA its most developed member-state. As Singapore pursues
trade policies suited for small open state bilateralism, ethnically diverse and
complex ASEAN economies could be left to establish more South-South
integration without Singapore as a flagship (Low 2004, 15).
The WTO’s unclear requirements for South-South RTAs jeopardize
AFTA’s leadership, institutions, dispute settlement mechanisms, transpar-
ency and ability to reduce NTBs. Combined, these characteristics create
a restrictive trading environment in which intra-regional trade is limited.
However, AFTA is not the only region with a flawed legal framework. An ex-
amination of COMESA’s legal framework points out similar problems.
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