oh, now, why ; Group L, consisting of words that both introduce 'response ut-
terance units' and can serve as such units by themselves: yes, no; and Group
M, consisting of words that "appear at the beginnings of 'situation' utterance
units as attention-getting signals": say, listen, look . He could of course have
distinguished additional classes by looking at other contexts in which some
'interjections' occur, e.g., the final position of Turn off that radio, dammit!,
and by paying more attention to intonational restrictions on the words, thus
distinguishing the uses of yes and no in his Group L, which are separate into-
national phrases, from the yes, no , and sure of retorts, which are obligatorily
stressed and followed by a reduced S (Yés I did, Sure there was, etc.).
One feature of Fries's book that I find striking is how small a role con-
stituent structure plays in it. The chapter on "Immediate constituents" is in
fact its last chapter, except for a concluding chapter on "Practical applica-
tions". The bulk of his syntax is formulated in terms of sequences of word
There should have been a guard there.
* Should have been John working?
Should John have been working?
*There should a guard have been there.
He noted correctly, though, that existential there occurs in positions that "are functions of
Class I words", i.e., in NP positions, but it "is not a Class 1 substitute, for the Class 1 word
[...] always appears in the sentence also".
Bloomfield (1942:73) included existential there in a list of "certain adverbial expres-
sions [that] may precede the actor", with the special property that "the unstressed there and
the finite verb [...] both precede the actor". What has to precede the "actor" is actually not
the finite verb but the verb (finite or not) which licenses the existential there, a point that
Bloomfield missed even though his examples include There has recently come to my notice
[a serious problem]. Both he and Fries (1952:160) treated the word order with existential
there as a kind of inversion.
SYNTAX IN MID-20TH CENTURY AMERICAN LINGUISTICS 4 1 3
classes, without regard to constituent structure, as in the following formula
(p. 193), illustrated by the sentence below it:
(4) D l
a
2 D l
b
f D I
e
- E -
The school furnishes the microscope and the lamp.
Here italic D means 'determiner', 'f ' means 'function word', E is the group
of function words that roughly corresponds to 'coordinating conjunctions',
8
-
means 'singular', and the superscripts are referential indices. It is in fact de-
pendency structure that plays a central, though mostly unacknowledged, role
in Fries's syntax. He consistently identifies syntactic positions in terms of the
heads of the expressions that fill those positions, without regard to depen-
dents of those heads, which are allowed to go along for the ride, as in state-
ments such as "The words of Group F are followed by Class 1 words" (p.96),
which says roughly that prepositions are followed by nouns, but is interpreted
as saying that prepositions are followed by NPs. I conjecture that it is Fries's
tacit reliance on dependency syntax that is responsible for his treating per-
sonal pronouns as "Class 1 substitutes", thus endorsing the traditional view
of a personal pronoun as "standing for" a noun; they of course stand for
whole NPs rather than nouns (Gleason [1965:126] illustrates this point with
such obvious examples as *the good it ), but a noun is the head of a NP and
its dependents go along for the ride.
Besides referential indices and - and +, standing for 'singular' and
'plural', Fries's formulas include a feature on nouns that takes the values he,
she, it, or th, indicating the form that a pronoun takes when that noun is its
antecedent (or rather, is the head of its antecedent). Of particular interest here
is the fourth value, th, which is used when not a personal pronoun but only a
demonstrative such as then, thus, there can have the indicated antecedent;
Fries attaches this feature to the underlined Ns in (5):
(5) The committee approved the request this week.
My professor spent his holiday that way.
This important restriction on pronouns lay unnoticed until it was
rediscovered 15 years later in work by S.-Y. Kuroda (1970) and Paul M.
Postal (1970). Note also that in taking gender and number features, as well as
referential indices, to be borne by nouns or verbs and not by larger units such
8
Fries includes in class E not only the usual coordinating conjunctions but also the not of
contrastive negative constructions such as not now but earlier (p.95). See McCawley (1991)
for arguments that not X but y is in fact a coordinate structure, with the not in the syntactic
position of a coordinating conjunction.
414
JAMES D. McCAWLEYt
as NPs or VPs, Fries was adopting the same policy that figured in Aspects of
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