the Theory of Syntax, in which features could be borne only by a word, not
by a larger constituent.
9
Fries's chapter on anaphoric elements (which he
calls 'sequence signals') is refreshingly broad in its coverage; he recognizes
as anaphoric elements not only personal pronouns and demonstratives, but
also else and other, such temporal adverbs as earlier, afterwards, and here-
tofore, and a number of words that many dictionaries class as 'conjunctions':
however, yet, nevertheless, etc. He also notes that pronouns can have split
antecedents, as in one interpretation of (6) (with Fries's italicization):
(6) The boy brought his friends inside. They played with the dog.
The one puzzling characteristic of this chapter is that it is framed entirely in
terms of sequences of 'two or more free utterances', with the anaphoric ele-
ment taking its antecedent in an earlier 'free utterance', i.e., an earlier sen-
tence. There is no explicit recognition that all of the elements discussed can
have an antecedent in the same sentence and that most of them can precede
as well as follow the antecedent. Like generative grammarians in the next
decade, Fries separated intra-sentential from inter-sentential anaphora, differ-
ing from them in which class he attended to and which one he neglected.
In sharp contrast with Fries's book, in which constituent structure is en-
dorsed but not exploited, the syntax chapters of Charles F. Hockett's 1958 A
Course in Modern Linguistics give detailed constituent structure analyses of
many examples. There are important respects in which these analyses deviate
from the canonical constituent structures that Postal (1964) took to be charac-
teristic of American descriptivist syntax. Hockett interpreted certain mor-
phemes as 'markers' of particular modes of syntactic combination and,
through a notation in which they were set off by slanted lines, represented
them as being something other than simple constituents of those construc-
tions (Fig.l):
Fig.l: (Figure 17.6 from Hockett 1958:153)*
9
See McCawley (1968) for criticism of that policy.
* This diagram and the following, taken from Charles F. Hockett's A Course in Modern Lin-
guistics, are reproduced with the kind permission of the author (letter of 12 Sept. 1999). Ed.
SYNTAX IN MID-20TH CENTURY AMERICAN LINGUISTICS 415
Second, he allowed syntactic units to be simultaneous, a possibility that (to
my knowledge) he exploited only as a means of representing intonation in a
syntactic structure (Fig.2):
Fig.2: (Figurel8.4 from Hockett 1958:160)
Hockett's (1958) conception of parts of speech is based on morphology,
with uninfected words all belonging to a single class ('particles') except that
an uninfected word can be assigned to one of the inflected categories on the
basis of syntactic parallelism with words of that category, as in the case of
Latin nihil "nothing". He also occasionally speaks of a phrasal unit as be-
longing to a part of speech, as where he says that "Old dog is a singular noun
just as is dog" (p. 184) or that in expressions such as gave him five cents or
told him that she does it often "The verb takes an object [...], and then the
combination in turn functions as a verb with another object" (p. 195).
The treatment of parts of speech in Gleason's unjustly neglected 1965
book far surpasses those in all the other books discussed here in the percep-
tiveness and fairness of its criticism of earlier work in syntax, the breadth of
its coverage of facts of English, and the high quality of the argumentation for
its conclusions about syntactic categorization. Gleason goes far beyond Fries
in identifying syntactically significant classes of words that have been
lumped together under the label 'adverb', recognizing, for example, a class of
'limiters', including only Just, even, that "modify phrases of all kinds, noun
phrases as well as others", and a class of 'sentence connectors', including
nevertheless, however, furthermore. Gleason's characterization of 'limiters'
has two noteworthy characteristics: first, it is in terms of modification of
phrasal units rather than of words, and second, it categorizes words in terms
of their full range of uses, i.e., only in only your father is categorized not on
the basis of what it modifies in that expression but on the basis of what it can
modify in general. He recommends the teaching of parts of speech in schools
on the basis of typical examples rather than definitions and holds that identi-
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