particularly among young
women.
• It is often mixed with other fibres,
particularly cotton.
• He was very much influenced by Picasso,
especially when he was young.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Especially and particularly are usually used before a noun phrase or at the beginning
of a clause.
in particular
used when you want to mention one person or thing that is more
important than others or more affected by something than others:
• In the USA
in particular, large numbers of ordinary citizens lost money by investing in
internet companies.
• The work of Sally Mann,
in particular, has made us question representations of
children and childhood.
• One of the biggest environmental issues was the movement of hazardous waste.
In
particular, there was concern about rich, industrialized countries exporting such waste
to poor developing countries.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
In particular is usually used after a noun phrase. It can also be used at the beginning of
a sentence.
notably
adverb
used when saying that someone or something is an important example
of something.
Notably is a formal word, which is used especially in articles and essays:
• Some economists, most
notably J. M. Keynes, recommended increasing government
spending in times of recession, in order to stimulate the economy.
• In 1950, half the world's ships were built in the UK (
notably in Liverpool, Sunderland,
Belfast and Glasgow).
above all
used when emphasizing that something is more important than the other
things you have mentioned:
• Cycling is not only pollution-free but also flexible, cheap, and
above all, healthy.
• Try to find out if your daughter has any other worries or problems.
Above all, show her
that you care and will give her all the support and help you can.
most of all
more than anyone or anything else:
• America had become an importer of copper, lead, zinc, and
most of all, oil.
•
Most of all, we need an approach that works.
44
most importantly / most significantly:
• Perhaps
most importantly, the nation seemed to have lost its pride and its sense of
direction.
• The 18th century was a period of enormous social change.
Most significantly, the
Agricultural Revolution drove large numbers of workers into the cities.
3. To emphasize something
emphasize / stress
verb
[transitive] to say firmly that something is particularly
important:
• In their report, they
emphasized the need for better police training.
• She
stresses that death is not always the aim of those who try to commit suicide.
highlight
verb
[transitive] to show that something such as a problem or fact is
particularly important, especially by providing new information about it:
• This case
highlights some of the problems associated with patients travelling long
distances for treatment.
• Campbell is more concerned with
highlighting the issues involved, rather than
providing solutions.
underline / underscore
verb
[transitive] to show clearly that something is true:
• The high rate of mortality
underlines the need for a greater understanding of the
causes of the disease.
• Studies and statistics
underscore the fact that much of the country's wealth is in the
hands of a tiny minority.
draw attention to
to say that something is important and needs to be considered, or
to make people realise that something is important:
• A number of writers have
drawn attention to this fact.
• The study was one of the first to
draw attention to the problems faced by severely
disabled adults.
point up
phrasal verb
to write about something in a way that shows it is very
important:
• The report
pointed up the need for more research on the subject.
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Explaining
1. What you say when you are explaining something
2. Words meaning to explain something
1. What you say when you are explaining something
this means that / which means that
used when saying what the results or
effects of what you have just said are:
• Computer technology is constantly being improved.
This means that the computer that
you have just bought will probably be out of date in only a few months' time.
• There is a shortage of hospital doctors,
which means that patients often have to wait
a long time for treatment.
• The bank's current interest rate is 3.5%.
This means that for every £100 you have in
your savings account, you will get £3.50 in interest.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
You use
This means that at the beginning of a sentence. You use which means that at
the beginning of a clause.
that is
used when explaining the meaning of the previous word or phrase, by giving
more information:
• The book is about art in the modern period,
that is, art since 1900.
• Her son suffers from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.
That is, he finds it difficult
to pay attention or stay quiet for more than a short period of time.
Ie /i.e.
used when explaining the meaning of the previous word or phrase, by giving
more information:
• The new law will come into force at the end of next month,
ie March 31st.
• There has been a decline in the number of 'good' jobs,
i.e. ones that are highly skilled
and well-paid.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
ie is the abbreviation for id est, which is Latin for that is.
In formal essay writing, it is usually better to use
that is.
in other words / to put it another way
used when saying something in a
different way, either in order to explain it more clearly, or to emphasize the point that you
want to make:
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• Average incomes fell, while the incomes of the top 20 percent of the population
increased.
In other words, the rich got richer.
• In a democracy, the government must be accountable to the people. The people
should,
in other words, be able to get rid of their rulers through elections.
• Using this software would offer a 15% saving in space.
To put it another way, this will
mean an extra 12Gb free on an 80Gb disk.
to put it simply
used when saying something in a simple way so that the reader can
understand what you mean:
• What the treatment aims to do,
to put it simply, is to make the skin grow back over the
wound.
• A romantic novel should demand a certain level of emotional involvement on the part of
the reader.
To put it simply, the novel should not just describe a love relationship; it
should allow the reader to participate in it.
specifically
adverb
used when saying exactly what you are referring to, when you are
explaining something:
• Several prisoners reported some kind of physical abuse.
Specifically, 42 were beaten;
eight were roughly handled; and four more were forced to remain standing for hours at a
time.
• What we need is a stable economic climate that encourages companies to invest on a
long-term basis.
More specifically, we need to get rid of the current high taxes on
investment income.
2. Words meaning to explain something
explain
verb
[intransitive and transitive] to give someone the information that they
need in order to understand something:
• He was the first scientist to
explain how the process of evolution works.
• The book begins by
explaining the difference between psychology and psychiatry.
• There are a number of theories which seek to
explain why (=try to explain why) zebras
have stripes.
give / offer / provide an explanation to explain something:
• He attempts to
give a simple explanation of his theory.
• It is possible that some recent research by NASA scientists could
offer an explanation
for this phenomenon.
• They were unable to
provide a satisfactory explanation for their behaviour.
set out
phrasal verb
to explain facts, reasons, plans etc by stating them clearly and in
a carefully planned order:
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• He
sets out his plans for an ideal Roman city in the first volume of his work.
• The document
sets out exactly how the money will be spent.
go through
phrasal verb
to explain all the details about something in the right order,
so that someone can understand it:
• She begins her article by
going through all the reasons why people have opposed the
use of nuclear energy.
outline
verb
[transitive] to explain the main ideas about something, without giving all
the details:
• In his introduction, Piaget
outlines the four main stages in a child's development.
• The purpose of this chapter is to
outline the basic principles which form the
foundations of the English legal system.
expand on
phrasal verb
to add more details or information to what has already been
said:
• Melville saw the ocean as the source of all life. He
expands on this idea in his novel,
'Moby Dick'.
• The author
expands on this theme at length (=writes a lot about it).
clarify
verb
[transitive] to make something clearer:
• This chapter aims to
clarify some of the most important issues in genetics today.
• In his speech the prime minister attempted to
clarify his position on economic reform.
48
Giving Example
1. What you say when giving an example
2. What you say when there are a lot of other examples of something
3. To give something or someone as an example
1. What you say when giving an example
for example
used when giving an example of the kind of thing that you have just
mentioned:
• People watch huge amounts of television. In the United States,
for example, many
children spend more hours watching television than they do attending school.
• A lot of English words come from Latin.
For example 'homicide' comes from the Latin
words 'homo' (=man) and 'cidium' (=killing).
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
In essays,
for example is often used later on in a sentence, rather than at the beginning:
The influence of Eastern music can be heard in Western classical music,
for example in
the piano works of Debussy.
The abbreviation of
for example is eg. In formal essays you usually use the full phrase
for example.
for instance
means the same as
for example, but it is slightly less formal:
• Our climate is already showing signs of change. Last year
, for instance, was one of
the hottest summers on record.
• There is a great deal we can do to reduce the amount of pollution we produce.
For
instance, we can use our cars less, and use public transport instead.
particularly / in particular
adverb
used when saying that something is especially
true about someone or something:
• Tourism is very important for the economy,
particularly in the south of the country.
• His work had a big influence on Picasso
in particular.
be a good / typical / classic / obvious etc example:
• The United Kingdom is a
good example of a country that consists of several smaller
states.
• Her case is a
classic example of this kind of problem.
be a case in point
used when saying that something is a very good and relevant
example of the kind of thing that you have just mentioned:
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• Many native English plants and animals are under threat. The red squirrel is a
case in
point.
• The government has consistently ignored basic human rights.
A case in point is the
recent killing of 10 political prisoners.
take / consider
verb
[transitive] used when you are about to talk about a particular
situation that you want to show as an example:
• Science has yet to answer some important questions.
Take, for instance, (=consider
the following example) the theory that the universe started with the 'big bang'. What
came before the big bang?
• Many students are bored with their studies.
Consider the case of Christina. She is a
hard-working student who plans to go to college. Yet she says of her education, "It's not
like I'm thinking a lot here."
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Take and consider are always used at the start of a sentence.
by way of illustration
a formal phrase
, used especially when you are going to give
a long example that shows what you mean:
• Revolutions often lead to dictatorships.
By way of illustration, consider the events
that followed the French Revolution.
• Plants have been used in Cambodia in many ways for many centuries.
By way of
illustration, of the 2,300 species of plants in Cambodia, approximately 40 percent have
a traditional use, primarily as food and medicine.
be shown by
used when giving an example which shows that what you are saying is
true:
• The people who live there are quite rich.
This is shown by the size of their houses.
• Metal tools were produced here for thousands of years,
as is shown by weapons
discovered in ancient tombs.
this is true of / this was true of
used when giving an example which shows that
what you are saying is true:
• Many writers have suffered from discrimination.
This was true of Oscar Wilde, and
also of André Gide.
2. What you say when there are a lot of other examples of something
such as
used when giving one or two typical examples of the kind of thing or person
that you mean, when there are many other examples:
• The factory produced electrical goods
such as washing machines and cookers.
50
• Girls do better than boys in subjects
such as English.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Such as does not usually have a comma before it, whereas for example and including
usually do.
including
preposition
used when you want to give examples of the kinds of thing that
something includes:
• She has many interests,
including opera and ballet.
• The company produces 340 drugs and cosmetic products,
including penicillin,
antibiotics and aspirins.
to name but a few
used after examples of something, when saying that there are
many more that you could mention:
• He wrote several famous books: '1984', 'Animal Farm', and 'The Road to Wigan Pier',
to name but a few.
etc / et cetera
adverb
used when you want to say that there are many other
examples of other things of the same kind:
• It is best to avoid tea, coffee, alcohol
etc.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
In formal essays it is better not to use
etc, and to rephrase the sentence using such as:
It is best to avoid drinks
such as tea, coffee, or alcohol.
Do not use
eg and etc in the same sentence.
3. To give something or someone as an example
give the example of something / give something as an example:
• The writer
gives the example of Johnny Saxon who, three years after winning the
world boxing title, was charged with burglary.
• He
gives as an example the island of Aru in southeast Indonesia, where the number
of turtles has decreased dramatically.
cite
verb
[transitive] a formal word meaning to give something or someone an example:
• She
cites a survey last year, which showed that 84 percent of shoppers would be
prepared to return containers to retailers if supermarkets set up a suitable system.
• Sendak
cites Tolstoy as an example of an author who needs no illustrator.
51
Giving Exceptions
1. Ways of saying that something or someone is an exception
2. Someone or something that is not included
1. Ways of saying that something or someone is an exception
except
preposition
used when saying that a statement does not include a particular
person or thing:
• The office is open every day
except Sundays.
• Most of the critics liked the play,
except for one critic on the Los Angeles Times.
•
Except for a few years in the early sixties and seventies, inflation has been a
continuing feature of American life since World War II.
• The area looks very much like the state of Iowa,
except that it is surrounded by
beautiful snow-covered mountains.
•
Except in an emergency, these doors must remain closed.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Except and except for mean the same thing. You can use except for and except in at
the beginning of a sentence. Otherwise,
except does not come at the beginning of a
sentence.
apart from / aside from
preposition
used when mentioning one or two things that
do not fit the main thing that you are saying, especially when they are not very important:
•
Aside from one or two minor errors, this is an excellent piece of research.
• The films were all made in Hollywood,
apart from one, which was made in the UK.
• The weather was not very good in the first week.
Apart from that, it was a good
holiday.
excluding / not including
preposition
used when saying that something, especially
a total number or amount, does not include a particular thing or person:
• The software costs $49.95,
not including tax.
•
Excluding students, the total number of unemployed rose from 2 million to 2.3 million.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Excluding is more formal than not including.
with the exception of / with one exception
formal phrases used when you
want to emphasize that something does not include a particular thing or person:
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• Denmark has more wind turbines than any other place in the world,
with the
exception of California.
•
With the exception of skin cancer, breast cancer is the most common cancer among
women.
• The prisons are,
with one exception, overcrowded and lacking in facilities for
prisoners.
but
preposition
used especially after
nothing, no one, any, anyone, anything, all,
everything and everyone, when saying that something is the only thing, or someone is
the only person:
• There is
nothing but trees, for mile after mile.
• The garment covers
everything but the eyes.
•
All but a few of her family died of the disease.
other than
a phrase meaning except, used especially in negative sentences:
• He had no interests
other than teaching.
• No one
other than her knew about the plan.
• Daley has said little about his childhood,
other than that it was happy and normal.
• Some airlines will not allow you to take pets
other than dogs, cats and birds.
in a few cases / in a small number of cases
used when emphasizing that
something only happens a few times or to a few people:
•
In a few cases the information has gone missing from the files.
• Surgery can only help
in a small number of cases.
2. Someone or something that is not included
exception
noun
[uncountable and countable] someone or something that is different
from the others and cannot therefore be included in a statement:
• The health of most of the patients improved, although there were one or two
exceptions, (=one or two patients did not get better)
• Apart from a few
minor exceptions (=unimportant exceptions), the two countries' legal
systems are very similar.
• Not many first-rate writers have written about film.
A notable exception (=an important
exception) is Grahame Greene, who reviewed movies regularly between 1935 and 1940.
• All societies,
without exception, share the same characteristics. (=used when saying
that there are no exceptions)
53
Giving Opinions
*see also
Agreeing, Disagreeing
1. What you say when giving your opinion about something
2. Ways of saying what another person’s opinion is
3. To say what your opinion is about something
1. What you say when giving your opinion about something
in my opinion / in my view
used when giving your opinion about something:
• Their concerns are,
in my opinion, fully justified.
•
In my opinion, the cathedral is one of the world's most beautiful churches.
•
In my view, the court made the right decision.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Don't say 'According to my opinion' when you mean
in my opinion.
I think that
used when giving your opinion about something:
•
I think that everyone should be able to own their own home.
•
I think that hunting should be banned.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
In formal essay writing, people often try to avoid using phrases with ‘I’ or 'me', and use
more impersonal phrases such as
in this writer’s view or in this writer's opinion.
When you are writing essays, it is a good idea to quote another writer to support your
argument, rather than just say
I think that ... This will give your argument much more
authority.
For example: As Hobsbawm (1969) has pointed out, the rise of the cotton industry
created a huge demand for cotton goods.
in this writer’s view / opinion
used in formal essays when giving your opinion:
•
In this writer's view, the present system is in need of reform.
•
In this writer's opinion, the arguments against using nuclear energy are
overwhelming.
it seems to me that
used when saying that you think that something is probably
true. You use this especially when you have considered a situation carefully and want to
give your overall opinion about it:
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•
It seems to me that there is some truth in her argument.
I believe that
used about strongly held beliefs, for example about moral issues:
•
I believe that the death penalty is morally wrong.
2. Ways of saying what another person’s opinion is
somebody's opinion / view is that
used when saying what another writer's
opinion is about something:
• The judge's
opinion was that she was fit to stand trial.
•
His view is that consumers should be told the whole truth about the product they are
buying.
•
The general opinion is that the combined vaccine works better. (=most people think
this)
in somebody's opinion / view
used when saying what another writer's opinion is
about something:
• The important thing,
in Galileo's opinion, was to accept the facts and build a theory to
fit them.
• Criticism is quite different,
in Barthes's view, from ordinary reading.
•
In his opinion, the portrait painter seeks to capture the moment when the model looks
most like himself or herself.
be of the opinion that / take the view that
to have a particular opinion. These
are formal phrases:
• Until then, most scientists
were of the opinion that these variations in weather were
compatible with established climate patterns.
• Levitt
takes the view that low prices are the key to marketing success.
have / hold an opinion
to have a particular opinion:
• Everybody
has a different opinion of what America represents.
• They
held the same opinions on many issues.
• Voters tend to
have a low opinion of politicians. (=think they are not very good)
• Teenage girls generally
have a higher opinion of themselves as learners than boys,
according to a recent study. (=they think that they are better)
for somebody
preposition
used when saying what someone's opinion is, especially
when this is a general opinion which also affects their other ideas about a subject.
For
somebody is usually used at the beginning of a sentence:
55
•
For Chomsky, language is an abstract system of rules which is used by human minds
for transmitting and receiving ideas.
•
For Vygotsky, social factors play a fundamental role in intellectual development.
as far as somebody is concerned
used when you want to emphasize that you
are talking about the opinion of a particular person or group:
•
As far as he was concerned, the failure showed the limits of military intervention.
• The election was a formality
as far as the ruling party was concerned.
from sb’s point of view
used when saying what someone's reaction to something
is, based on how it affects them:
•
From their point of view, the system worked quite well.
• It is important to consider the situation
from the point of view of the ordinary man in
the street.
3. To say what your opinion is about something
give / express / voice an opinion
to say what you think about something:
• Other writers have
expressed similar opinions on the subject.
• In his speech he was simply
voicing an opinion that was held by many people at the
time.
• The commission has yet to
give its opinion on the matter.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Express and voice an opinion are more formal than give an opinion, but mean the
same thing.
make your views known (about something)
to tell people about your
opinions, especially so that they can be considered when making decisions about
something that affects you:
• Old people seldom have the opportunity to
make their views known.
56
Giving Reasons
*see also
Causes, Listing and Ordering
1. What you say when giving reasons for something
2. Words meaning reason
3. A reason that does not seem believable
1. What you say when giving reasons for something
because
conjunction
used when giving the reason for something:
• The idea was rejected
because it was too expensive.
• They were discriminated against
because of their colour.
•
Because many old people are on low incomes, they are often unable to afford
adequate heating in the winter.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
When writing essays, you don't usually use
because at the beginning of a sentence
when you are referring back to the previous sentence. For example, instead of writing
"Many firms are building factories there. Because wages are much lower." it is much
better to write: Many firms are building factories there because wages are much lower.
But if the two sentences you want to connect are very long, you can write
The reason is
or
The reason for this is at the start of a second sentence.
the reason (for this) is
used when giving the reason for something, especially
when the explanation is quite long:
• These printers quickly achieved a market share of over 60%.
The reason for this is
that the technology they use is much simpler — and therefore cheaper — and running
costs are lower.
why
conjunction
used when writing about the reason that causes something to happen:
• No one knows
why the dinosaurs died out so suddenly.
• There are many
reasons why people are having fewer children.
• Girls mature earlier than boys.
This may explain why they perform better at school.
in order to
so that someone can do something, or so that something can happen:
• Many criminals steal
in order to get money to buy drugs. (=the reason they steal is so
that they can buy drugs)
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STUDY NOTE: Grammar
In order to is typically used in formal English. In less formal contexts, you often just use
to, for example: I wanted to go to France to improve my knowledge of the language.
for
preposition
because of a particular reason:
• Most people go there
for sightseeing.
• The names cannot be published
for legal reasons.
• The data will be used
for research purposes.
through
preposition
used when explaining why someone succeeded or failed:
• She got the job
through hard work. (=because she worked very hard)
• The records were lost, either
through carelessness or incompetence.
as a result of
used when explaining what made something happen:
• Sea levels are rising
as a result of global warming.
•
As a result of his work, illnesses such as tuberculosis can now be treated.
due to / owing to
preposition
used to give the reason why something has happened:
• She resigned
due to ill health.
• The number of songbirds has declined. This is
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