part.
• The rioting in the capital
played a major part in the collapse of the government.
be a factor
to be one of several things that affect something:
• Public pressure against nuclear power
was definitely a factor in their decision.
• The parent's influence
is a major factor in a child's progress at school. (=a very
important factor)
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contribute to
verb
[intransitive] if something
contributes to a situation, it is one of
the things that cause that situation to happen or become worse, but it is not one of the
main causes:
• Methane gas is known
to contribute to the greenhouse effect.
• Television often gets blamed for
contributing to the decline of family life.
• Passive smoking could
contribute to the development of respiratory diseases among
nonsmokers.
• It is acknowledged that unhappiness is a
contributing factor in the development of
certain illnesses.
influence
verb
[transitive] if something
influences another thing, it has an effect on it,
although it does not cause it directly:
• Weber demonstrated that culture and religion
influenced economic development.
• Genetic factors may
influence how the central nervous system reacts to nicotine.
4. Something that causes another thing to happen
cause
noun
[countable]:
• Scientists are still trying to
find the cause of the disease.
• Investigators have visited the scene to
establish the cause of the accident. (=find out
what the cause is)
• Polluted water is one of the
major causes of death among young children in some
countries.
• Almost certainly, the
underlying cause of the war was the need for oil. (=the most
important cause, even though it is not immediately obvious)
• Scarman was in no doubt that
the root cause of the rioting was unemployment and
poor living conditions. (=the most important cause, even though it is not immediately
obvious)
factor
noun
[countable] one of several causes of a situation or condition:
• The research tried to identify the
key factors (=most important factors) affecting
economic change.
• The committee studied a wide range of
social, economic, and environmental
factors.
• Studies have shown that alcohol is a
contributory factor in 10% of all accidents in
Britain (=it is one of the things that causes accidents, often in combination with other
things)
• Cost is often the
deciding factor when choosing any product. (=the main factor that
makes you choose to do something)
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origins
noun
[plural] the first causes from which a situation, condition etc has
developed:
• The book describes
the origins of modern science.
•
The origins of Sudan's debt crisis go back to the early 1970s.
• For some patients, understanding
the origins of their fears is a long and painful
process.
• The dispute between the two families
had its origins in the battle of Wakefield.
source
noun
[countable] something that causes something else to develop, for
example a disagreement, a feeling, or an infection:
• Housework can become a major
source of conflict between couples.
• The fact that the two words are so similar can be a
source of confusion.
• Further study was necessary to identify the
source of the infection.
root
noun
[countable] the original and most important cause of something, especially a
problem:
• They failed to
get to the root of the problem. (=discover the main cause)
• Bad experiences in childhood
lie at the root of many psychological disorders. (=they
are the main cause)
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Certainty & Uncertainty
1. Ways of saying that you are certain about something
2 Ways of saying that you are not certain about something
1. Ways of saying that you are certain about something
certain
adjective
if you are
certain about something, you are absolutely sure that it is
true. If a fact is
certain, it is definitely true, or it will definitely happen:
•
I am certain that his analysis is correct.
•
It now seems certain that the earth's climate is starting to change.
• One can never be
absolutely certain of anything in science.
• The general addressed the troops before the battle, assuring them that victory was
certain.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Certain is more formal than sure. It also sounds more definite.
sure
adjective
[not before noun] if you are
sure about something, you believe that it is
definitely true or correct:
•
I am sure that many other writers share this view.
• It is difficult to be
absolutely sure about when the photograph was taken.
convinced
adjective
[not before noun] completely sure that something is true,
especially when you cannot prove it but you have strong feelings about it:
• She was
convinced that her husband was innocent.
• They became
convinced of the need for better health education.
confident
adjective
[not before noun] sure that something good will happen, or that
you will be able to achieve what you want:
• The researchers were
confident of success. (=they were sure that they would
succeed)
• In his report he said he was
confident that standards would improve.
satisfied
adjective
[not before noun] sure that something is true, because you have
enough information to make a decision:
• Professor Knowles is now
fully satisfied that (=completely satisfied) the drug is safe
for general use.
• The insurance company needed to be
satisfied that the damage was caused by the
storm.
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have no doubt / be in no doubt
to be so certain about something that there are
no doubts in your mind:
•
I have no doubt that a cure for the disease will one day be found.
• He said that he
was in no doubt that the fire was started deliberately.
without (a) doubt
used when you are completely sure about something:
• She was
without doubt one of Mexico's finest artists.
• His experience in London was,
without doubt, very important to his career as a writer.
•
Without a doubt, it is what we eat that determines our weight.
there is no doubt that
(also
there is no denying / disputing the fact
that
) used when you are completely sure about something:
•
There is no doubt that violence on our TV screens does influence children.
•
There is no denying the fact that these men are guilty of the most horrendous
crimes.
•
There is no disputing the fact that new technology has had a dramatic effect on our
lives.
certainly / undoubtedly
adverb
used when you want to emphasize that you are
certain of what you are saying:
• Businesses will
certainly benefit from the new tax laws.
•
Undoubtedly there is a link between smoking and lung cancer.
•
Certainly it will be a long time before humans are able to live in other parts of the solar
system.
• Beckham was the captain and
undoubtedly the best known player in the England
team.
2. Ways of saying that you are not certain about something
not certain / uncertain
adjective
[not before noun] not sure about something:
•
I am not certain that the figures are accurate.
• People often feel
uncertain about how to deal with this type of situation.
•
It is uncertain whether his death was accidental.
•
It is by no means certain that she is right. (=it is not at all certain)
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Not certain/uncertain is more formal than not sure.
25
not sure / unsure
adjective
[not before noun] if you are
not sure about something,
you do not know exactly what it is, whether it is true, what to do etc:
•
I am not sure whether this story is true or not.
• Police are still
unsure about the precise details of what happened.
• Scientists are
not entirely sure that (=not completely sure) life does exist in other
parts of the universe.
have doubts
if you
have doubts about something, you are not sure if it is true,
correct, or suitable:
• Many people
have doubts about the methods used in the research.
• Doctors
have doubts as to whether these alternative treatments really work.
be dubious about something
to not feel sure that you should do something,
because you can think of ways in which it could cause problems or go wrong:
• The writer
is dubious about the effectiveness of prison as a way of dealing with drug-
related problems.
• Most medical schools
are dubious about accepting students older than 30.
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Comparing & Contrasting
*see also
Linking parts of a sentence
1. What you say when comparing things or people
2. To compare things or people
1. What you say when comparing things or people
compared to / with
used when comparing things or people, especially when
comparing numbers or amounts:
• This year's profits are much higher
compared to last year's.
• The average male now has a life expectancy of 77.6 years,
compared with 75 in
1960.
• Total spending on health care represents about 4 percent of GDP.
Compared to most
other advanced economies, that figure is low.
• Mortality rates are lower for women as
compared with men.
by comparison / in comparison
when compared with another thing, person etc:
• Young male drivers have far more accidents
by comparison with other groups.
• Wages are low
in comparison with the US.
• In his early pictures he used rather dull colours. His later work is much brighter
in
comparison.
• The amount of money spent on advertising milk
pales in comparison to (=is much
less than) the money spent on advertising beer.
next to / beside
preposition
used when comparing things or people, especially when
there is a surprising difference between them:
• Our problems seem trivial
next to those faced by people in the developing world.
• Their achievements
pale beside his. (=they seem much less important)
as against / as opposed to
conjunction
used when you are comparing two figures
or pieces of information, in order to show how they are different:
• The company achieved sales of $404 million,
as against $310 million in the previous
year.
• One study predicted that 42% of female university graduates would remain single the
rest of their lives,
as opposed to just 5% of male graduates.
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unlike
preposition
used when saying that people or things are different:
•
Unlike his brother, he had no interest in music.
• The drug has very few side effects,
unlike other drugs that are used to treat this
illness.
in contrast / by contrast
used when mentioning the difference between two
things, people, countries etc that you are comparing:
•
In contrast to the south of the island, the north is still untouched by tourism.
• The US and Australia,
in contrast with most other leading industrialized nations,
chose not to sign the Kyoto Protocol on climate change.
• Studies show that each execution costs $3.5 million.
By contrast it costs about
$600,000 to keep someone in prison for life.
in proportion to / in relation to
used when considering the relationship between
the amount or size of something compared to another thing:
• People from Sweden pay the highest rates of tax
in proportion to their incomes.
• His head is big
in proportion to the rest of his body.
• Britain's national debt was greater than that of the US
in relation to the size of its
economy.
relative
adjective
used when comparing the amount of something that someone or
something has, with others of the same type:
• In his article he compares the
relative merits of living in the countryside and living in a
big city.
• It is too early to make a judgement about
the relative importance of these different
factors.
• How do we account for the
relative lack of women studying physics at university?
2. To compare things or people
compare
verb
[transitive] to examine or consider two or more things or people, in
order to show how they are similar or different:
• A study by Nottingham University
compared the cost of recycling plastic bags with
making them from scratch.
• Galileo
compared the time it took for different types of object to fall to the ground.
• The graph
compares the number of students joining the university to study history and
chemistry.
make / draw a comparison
to compare two or more things or people and say how
they are similar:
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• In her article, she
makes a comparison between people's lives now and 50 years ago.
• It is possible to
draw a comparison between the two poets' work.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Draw a comparison is more formal than make a comparison.
draw an analogy
to say that two situations are similar:
• Some people have attempted to
draw an analogy between America's invasion of Iraq
and the war in Vietnam.
draw a parallel
to say that some aspects of two very different things are similar:
• The writer
draws a parallel between Henry James's elaborate style of writing and the
ingenious patterns
and curious details in Minton's paintings.
•
Parallels can be drawn between her work and that of Picasso.
liken somebody / something to
phrasal verb
to say that someone or something
is similar to another person or thing:
• Gambling is often
likened to drug addiction.
• Critics have
likened the play to Arthur Miller's work.
contrast
verb
[transitive] to compare two things, situations etc, in order to show how
they are different from each other:
• In her novel she
contrasts the lives of two families in very different circumstances.
make / draw a distinction between
to say that you think two things are very
different:
• It is important to make a distinction between people's fears about crime and the real
situation.
• The author draws a distinction between allowing death to occur, and causing it.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Draw a distinction is more formal than make a distinction.
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Concluding
1. What you say when concluding your essay or argument
2. Saying again what your aims were at the conclusion of an essay
1. What you say when concluding your essay or argument
in conclusion
a phrase used at the beginning of the final paragraph of an essay or
article, when you want to write about the main things that you have mentioned in it:
•
In conclusion, the results of our study suggest that this type of diet is perfectly safe.
• Thus,
in conclusion, the population of England remained fairly stable for much of the
15th century.
to summarize / to sum up
used when referring to the main things that you have
mentioned in it:
•
To summarize: there are many reasons why people commit crime.
•
To sum up, in 1922 the Soviet government found itself in a situation similar to the one
faced by the Tsars.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
You use
to summarize and to sum up at the start of the final paragraph of an essay or
article. They can be followed either by a colon or a comma.
something can be summarized as follows
used when saying what you think
the main points about something are:
• The organization's main aim
can be summarized as follows: to create opportunities
for students to learn a wide range of computer skills.
• The result of the survey
can be summarized as follows. Both Japan and Korea show
a strong preference for natural gas over oil, coal, and nuclear energy.
the following conclusion(s) may be drawn
used when you want to mention
something that you think is true because of what has been written earlier in the article or
essay:
•
The following conclusions may be drawn from these figures. Firstly, the US
economy is moving out of recession. Secondly, there are no grounds for concern about
its immediate future.
• With regard to defense measures against attack from the air,
the following
conclusions may be drawn. The best method of defense is a strong air force. The next
requirement is a well-organized observation (radar) and warning system.
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the main conclusion to be drawn is that
used when you want to mention the
main point that you think is true because of what has been written earlier in the article or
essay:
•
The main conclusion to be drawn from this discussion is that the best way to help
slow readers is to improve their skill at recognizing individual words.
2. Saying again what your aims were at the conclusion of an essay
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
When you are writing the concluding paragraph of an essay, report etc, you often begin
by saying what you wanted to achieve when you were writing the essay. The following
are some phrases you can use.
the purpose / aim of this ... was to ...
used at the end of an essay, article,
report, etc, when saying what its purpose was and whether you have succeeded, what
you have found, etc:
•
The aim of this study was to determine whether it is possible to reduce the amount of
salt in bread without spoiling its taste.
in this ... I have tried / attempted to ...
used at the end of an essay, article,
report, etc, when saying what its purpose was and whether you have succeeded, what
you have found, etc:
•
In this essay, I have tried to set out the main events that led to the start of the First
World War.
•
In this report, we have attempted to demonstrate that although nuclear power is
cleaner than using gas or coal, it is more expensive in the long-term.
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Decreasing
*opposite
Increasing
1. To decrease
2. To make something decrease
3. A decrease
4. When something stops decreasing
1. To decrease
decrease
verb
[intransitive] to become less in number or amount:
• The average rainfall has
decreased by around 30 percent.
• The total number of people who are unemployed has
decreased slightly.
• After radiotherapy, the number of tumours
decreased significantly.
• The effectiveness of the drug
gradually decreases.
go down
phrasal verb
to decrease:
• The percentage of fat in our diets has
gone down.
• As a result of the improvements, complaints from customers
went down by more than
70%.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Decrease is more formal than go down.
If you want to say that something 'has decreased', you can say that it
is down, for
example:
Inflation
is down
to 4%.
decline
verb
[intransitive] a formal word meaning to decrease.
Decline is used about
numbers or amounts, and also about the level or standard of something:
• In rural areas, the standard of living continued to
decline.
• Salaries have effectively
declined by around 4.5%.
• The rate of inflation has
declined sharply in the past year. (=quickly and by a large
amount)
• Support for the government is
steadily declining.
• The city has
declined in importance.
fall / drop
verb
[intransitive] to decrease, especially by a large amount:
• The number of tigers in the wild has
fallen to just over 10,000.
• At night, the temperature
drops to minus 20 degrees.
• Profits
fell from £98.5 million to £76 million.
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• In May, the price of coffee
dropped by over 20%..
plunge / plummet
verb
[intransitive] to suddenly decrease very quickly and by a very
large amount:
• Gas prices have
plunged 31 percent in less than a week.
• Sales of red meat are
plummeting.
• Climate change could cause global temperatures to
plummet.
halve
verb
[intransitive] to decrease by a half:
• He expects the number of farms to
halve by 2020.
• In 1965, 49% of Canadians smoked. This figure has more than
halved.
diminish
verb
[intransitive] to decrease to a low number, amount, or level. Diminish is
used about numbers or amounts. It is also used when saying that a feeling becomes
less strong, or that something becomes less important:
• The numbers of fish have
diminished over the years.
• The population of the town
diminished from 32,000 to 9,000 between 1871 and 1913.
• The pain gradually
diminished.
• Although Campbell's influence
had diminished, he continued to speak out against the
war.
dwindle
verb
[intransitive] to gradually decrease until there is very little left of
something.
Dwindle is used about numbers or amounts. It is also used when saying that
something becomes less popular, less important etc:
• The birds' numbers have slowly
dwindled, until there are now only about 600 left in the
world.
• Traffic along the canals
dwindled during the 20th century.
• Support for the theory is
dwindling.
2. To make something decrease
reduce
verb
[transitive] to make something smaller in size, number or amount:
• The army was
greatly reduced in size.
• The number of serious accidents has been
reduced by a quarter.
• Doctors are urging people to
reduce the amount of salt in their diet.
• Using new technology will help to
reduce costs.
• Washing your hands helps to
reduce the risk of infection.
• The ability to communicate cheaply over long distances has
reduced the need for
workers to commute to offices.
33
lower
verb
[transitive] to reduce the amount or level of something:
• It is a basic rule in economics that if you want people to buy more of your products, you
lower the price.
• The voting age
was lowered to 18.
• They decided to lower interest rates by a quarter of a percent.
• The drug is used to
lower blood pressure.
• Some colleges have had to
lower their standards.
• To cool, the motor forces air out of the box, so
lowering the temperature.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Lower is used especially in more formal contexts, for example when writing about
politics, business, or technical matters.
Bring down is less formal.
bring down
phrasal verb
to reduce something such as prices or costs, or reduce the
level of something:
• They used cheaper materials in an effort to
bring down costs.
• The wage freeze was part of a campaign to
bring down inflation.
cut
verb
[transitive] to reduce something such as prices, costs, time, or money, usually
by a large amount:
• Companies are constantly looking for ways to
cut their costs.
• Shell is to
cut the price of petrol by 18p a gallon from midnight tomorrow.
• The new service will
cut the journey time from London to Manchester to just over 2
hours.
• The working week has been
cut from 39 hours to 35.
halve
verb
[transitive] to reduce something by a half:
• Costs were
halved.
• The new drugs have
halved the number of deaths among AIDS patients.
relieve / ease
verb
[transitive] to make pain or feelings less unpleasant:
• Doctors are allowed to give drugs to
relieve pain, even if they shorten life.
• Accordingly, they hired more telephone representatives
to relieve the pressure on
employees who handle customer complaints and inquiries.
• Making a joke can help to
relieve the tension.
alleviate
verb
[transitive] a formal word meaning to reduce pain or suffering, or make a
problem less serious:
• Gentle regular exercise helps to
alleviate the problem.
• Changes in diet can help to
alleviate the symptoms of the disease.
34
3. A decrease
decrease
noun
[uncountable and countable] used when something happens less than
it used to:
• There has a been a
significant decrease in the number of deaths from lung cancer.
• In August there was a
slight decrease in the rate of unemployment.
• Latest figures show an
overall 27% decrease in crime in the area since the project
began.
reduction
noun
[uncountable and countable] used when the price, amount, or level of
something is made lower:
• A small
reduction in costs can mean a large increase in profits.
• There has been a
significant reduction in traffic.
• Over the last few years there has been a
dramatic reduction in (=surprisingly large)
the number of people arrested for drink-driving.
cut
noun
[countable] used when a government or company reduces the price, amount,
or level of something:
• price cuts
• tax cuts
• pay cuts
• The company is planning further
job cuts.
• There have been major
cuts in government spending on defence.
• The state of California introduced new laws requiring
drastic cuts in (=very big cuts)
air pollution from automobiles.
• The bank announced a 1 per cent
cut in interest rates.
drop / fall
noun
[countable] used when a number or amount goes down, especially by
a large amount:
• The company reported a 35%
drop in profits.
• Researchers found that the number of trees had gone down from 506 to 261,
a drop of
48 percent.
• Spain has suffered a
sharp fall in its birth rate. (=a sudden very large fall)
decline
noun
[singular,uncountable] a formal word, used when the number, amount,
level, or standard of something goes down:
• There has been a
gradual decline in the number of homeless people.
• Television is often blamed for the
decline in moral standards in our society.
• There has been a
slight decline in the level of violence.
• Four years ago, there were 580 people living on the island, but there are now only 337.
That is a
decline of 42 percent.
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4. When something stops decreasing
level off / out
phrasal verb
to stop decreasing and remain at the same level:
• The population dropped from a peak of 800,000,
levelling off in 1999 at 650,000.
• Latest figures suggest inflation will
level out at 2.4% after a year at over 3%.
bottom out
phrasal verb
to reach the lowest point, and stop decreasing any more:
• The decline in car sales finally showed signs of
bottoming out in September.
• There is no evidence that the recession has
bottomed out yet.
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Disagreeing
*opposite
Agreeing
1. To disagree with someone or with an opinion
2. When people disagree about something
3. Causing disagreement
1. To disagree with someone or with an opinion
disagree / not agree
verb
[intransitive]:
• Scholars continue to
disagree about the meaning behind the poem.
• Although he
did not agree with Plato, he was profoundly influenced by him.
• Scientists
disagree among themselves on what causes the disease.
• I
strongly disagree with his views on immigration. (=I disagree with them very much)
take issue with
a formal phrase meaning to strongly disagree with what someone
has said:
• I feel that I must
take issue with the article's conclusion.
• Some people have
taken issue with Conrad's description of the Congo in his novel
'The Heart of Darkness'.
dispute
verb
[transitive] to say that you think that something is not correct or not true:
• Researchers have
disputed her claims.
• No one
disputes that the problem exists.
differ
verb
[intransitive] if people
differ about something, they have a range of different
opinions about it. If
opinions, views, or tastes differ, people have different opinions,
views, or tastes:
• Critics
differed sharply on the merits of his work. (=they had very different opinions)
•
Opinions differ about the proper relationship between the mass media and society.
be divided / split
adjective
if a group of people is
divided or split on something,
some of them have one opinion and others have a completely different opinion:
• America's doctors remain
deeply divided on the issue of whether it should be legal for
a physician to help a terminally ill patient commit suicide.
• Scientists
were split on the uses to which the discoveries of atomic physics were
being put.
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be mistaken
adjective
used to say that you disagree with someone or with an opinion
that they have, and think that they are wrong:
• He
is mistaken if he believes that the United States will not respond to this threat.
• Such a view
is, however, seriously mistaken.
2. When people disagree about something
disagreement
noun
[uncountable and countable] if there is
disagreement about
something, people do not agree about it:
• There is considerable
disagreement among experts about the usefulness of these
tests.
• She found herself
in disagreement with her colleagues on the issue. (=she found that
she disagreed with them about it)
dispute
noun
[uncountable and countable] a serious disagreement, in which two
people, organizations, or countries publicly disagree and argue with each other:
• He became involved in a long legal
dispute with his publisher.
• There is considerable
dispute over the precise definition of this term.
• The United Nations is trying to settle the bitter and long-running
dispute between the
two countries.
controversy
noun
[uncountable and countable] serious disagreement, especially with
people expressing strongly opposing views in newspapers, in books, on television etc:
• There has been a lot of
controversy over abortion in the US.
• Alice Walker writes about the
controversy surrounding the film version of her novel,
'The Color Purple'.
• There is some
controversy among biologists about whether this is actually true.
3. Causing disagreement
contentious
adjective
a formal word used to describe statements and situations that
cause a lot of disagreement and argument:
• Water has been a
contentious issue between Turkey and its neighbours for years.
• One particularly
contentious area in the field of health and safety is the valuation of
human life itself.
controversial
adjective
causing a lot of disagreement among people, with strongly
opposing opinions being expressed in newspapers, in books, on television etc:
• The use of genetic tests is a
controversial issue.
• The judge's decision was
highly controversial at the time.
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• Oliver Cromwell remains a somewhat
controversial historical figure.
divisive
adjective
causing arguments between people and making them form into two
opposing groups:
• The war was extremely
divisive.
• Same-sex marriage remains a
divisive issue in many parts of the US.
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Effects
*see also
Causes
1. Words meaning effect
2. To affect something or someone
1. Words meaning effect
effect
noun
[uncountable and countable] a change caused by something:
• She was one of the first scientists to study the
effects of radiation on the human body.
• At first, the treatment seemed to
have no effect.
• Some people believe that television has a
positive effect on our lives, while others
think that it has a
negative effect.
• Building hundreds of new homes is likely to have an
adverse effect on the
environment. (=a bad effect)
• The food we eat has a
significant effect upon our mental ability. (=an important and
noticeable effect)
• The decision could have
far-reaching effects. (=on a lot of things or people)
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Don't forget that
effect is a noun and affect is a verb.
impact
noun
[uncountable and countable] the effect that something has, especially a
big and permanent effect that happens as a result of something important:
• In practice, the change in the law did not
have much impact.
• His work has had an
enormous impact on the study of genetics. (=a very big impact)
• The war had a
devastating impact on the country's industries. (=it caused a great
amount of damage)
• Population growth will have a
profound impact upon world demand for food. (=a very
big impact)
influence
noun
[uncountable and countable] the effect that something has on people's
opinions or behaviour, or on how something develops:
• In his book, McCluhan examines the
influence of the media on our society.
• The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes
had a considerable influence on Spinoza.
• For much of the 20th century, Berlin
exerted a unique influence on the world. (=it had
a unique influence)
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STUDY NOTE: Grammar
The usual preposition to use with
effect, impact, or influence is on. In formal English,
people also use upon with the same meaning.
side effect
noun
[countable] an unwanted effect that something has in addition to its
good effects.
Side effect is used especially about drugs and medical treatment:
• Experts warn that this is a powerful drug which can have dangerous
side effects.
• Common
side effects of the treatment include headaches and muscle pains.
aftereffects
noun
[plural] bad effects that continue for a long time after the thing that
caused them:
• The country is still suffering from the
aftereffects of war.
• The
aftereffects of the illness can last for months.
knock-on effect
noun
[uncountable and countable] a British English phrase, used
when something has an effect on something, which then has an effect on something
else:
• The strikes are likely to have a
knock-on effect on the whole economy.
• If one flight is delayed, it can have
knock-on effects on the other flights.
repercussions
noun
[plural] the bad effects that happen later as a result of an event,
which continue for a long time afterwards:
• It was a major economic crisis with serious social and political
repercussions.
• The scandal could have serious
repercussions for her political career.
implications
noun
[plural] the possible effects that something is likely to have in the
future:
• The results of the study could have
important implications for future educational
policy.
• Some people believe that the increase in air travel will have serious
implications for
the climate.
2. To affect something or someone
affect
verb
[transitive] to have an effect on something or someone:
• The disease
affects women more than men.
• The island was
badly affected by last month's storms.
• Smoking while you are pregnant can
seriously affect the health of your unborn baby.
• Noise from the airport is
adversely affecting the quality of life for local residents. (=it is
having a bad effect on their lives)
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be bad for
to have a bad effect on someone or something:
• When companies close down it
is bad for the local economy.
• Studies have shown that eating some types of fish can
be bad for you.
be good for
to have a good effect on someone or something:
• Mr Blair's speech contained analysis of how environmental action can
be good for the
economy and for business.
• Bread, especially brown bread,
is good for you.
Impact / impact on
verb
[intransitive and transitive] to affect something.
Impact is
used as a verb especially in business English:
• The recession in the US has
negatively impacted sales of luxury cars. (=it has had a
bad effect on sales)
• The new regulations will
significantly impact on the way food companies operate.
(=they will have an important and noticeable effect)
make a difference
to have a noticeable effect on a situation:
• New drugs have
made a big difference in the treatment of some forms of cancer.
• In practice
it makes very little difference which type of oil you use.
• Choosing the right wine
can make all the difference to a meal. (=the right choice will
make it a very enjoyable meal)
influence
verb
[transitive] to have an effect on the way someone behaves or thinks, or
on the way a situation develops:
• There is no convincing evidence that advertising
influences total sales of alcohol.
• Morgan was
heavily influenced by Darwin's ideas on evolution. (=he was greatly
influenced by them)
• Levels of ozone are
strongly influenced by annual variations in the weather.
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Emphasizing
1. What you say when emphasizing that something is important
2. Ways of emphasizing one person or thing more than others
3. To emphasize something
1. What you say when emphasizing that something is important
I would like to stress that
used when you want to emphasize that something is
important:
•
I would like to stress that the research is still at an early stage.
•
I would like to stress that the characters in this poem bear no resemblance to real
people.
it should be noted that
a formal phrase used especially in articles and essays,
when you want to emphasize that something is important:
•
It should be noted that there are a number of alternative methods available.
•
It should be noted that the general trend of increasing unemployment has continued
over a number of years.
it is worth bearing in mind that
used when you want to emphasize that it is
important to remember something when you are considering a subject:
•
It is worth bearing in mind that 90% of the scientists researching herbicides in the
US are employed by chemical companies.
crucial
adjective
if something is
crucial, it is extremely important:
• Burgin distinguishes between photographic theory and photographic criticism (Burgin
1982). This distinction is
crucial.
• Factors such as temperature and acidity
play a crucial role in determining how well
the process works.
crucially
Crucially, it was claimed that there was an increase in childhood cancers in
areas surrounding nuclear power stations.
vital / essential
adjective
if something is
vital or essential, it is extremely important,
because without it there could be serious problems:
• These insects play a
vital part in the food chain.
•
It is essential that the work is carried out as soon as possible.
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2. Ways of emphasizing one person or thing more than others
especially / particularly
adverb:
• The climate is much colder,
especially in the far north.
• There has been a big increase in alcohol consumption,
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