The Idea of Pakistan

THE CONCEPT OF DHIMMA AND DHIMMI 
Non-Muslim citizens of the Islamic state whose protection is 
guaranteed by the state as well as individual Muslims are called dhimmis.
The term dhimmi or ahl al-dhimma means those Christians, Jews and others 
who agree to live in Dar al-Islam under the protection of Muslim umma 
subject to rendering military service or in lieu thereof a nominal obligation, 
i.e. payment of Jizya
. Muslim jurists hold that protection can be given to 
all in the Dar al-Islam save the idolators of Arab. As Prophet himself gave 
protection to the Magians (Majus) of Hajr by realizaing jizyah from them so 
they are also treated at par with the men of book (ahl al-kitab) in the writings 
of Muslim jurists
. The acceptance of jizyah from the Magians of Hajr 
implies that it can be exacted from the polytheists of the state as well.
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According to al-Baladhuri, the Prophet exacted it from the Magians of Hahr, 
‘Umar took it from the Persians and ‘Uthman from the Berbers of Africa
8
.
The non-acceptance of jizyah from the Arab idolators by the Prophet seems 
to be due to the fact that by that time the revelation regarding jizyah had not 
been received. “Had any of the idolators remained outside the orbit of Islam 
after the revelation about jizyah, the Prophet would have accepted it from 
them too and they would have become the dimma of the Islamic state
9
.”
It is noteworthy that the concept of dhimma and dhimmi emerged 
only after the conquest of Makkah which took place in the year 8 A.H, Prior 
to that the agreements entered into between the Prophet and the polytheists 
were pacts of mutual help and cooperation. Hence they were neither the 
protected people (ahl al-dhimma) nor any law of the Islamic state could be 
applied to them
10
. This is warranted by the fact that the injunctions 
regarding Jizya
11
were received by the Prophet only in the year 9 A.H. that 
is to say, only after the conquest of Makkah
12
. 
The imposition of jizyah on non-Muslim subjects of the Islamic 
state has been differently interpreted by the Muslim jurists. The general 
view that can fairly be guessed from the writings of the jurists is that jizyah 
is imposed upon the non-Muslims as a badge of humiliation for their 
unbelief or by way of mercy for the protection given to them by the Islamic 
state. Some consider it as a mark of punishment for their unbelief because 
of their continuous stay in the Dar al-Islam which is a crime. Hence they 
have no escape from being humiliated through the imposition of tax
13
.
Others contend that protection is given to non-Muslims with a view that they 
may mix up with the Muslim population, adopt their good qualities and 
ultimately embrace Islam
14
.
However, there was an economic motive
behind the imposition of Jizyah on non-Muslims, they insist.
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Commenting upon the various theories of jizyah by the classical 
jurists, a scholar of the present age says that the Qur’anic verse IX:29 
regarding jizyah has been understood in compact literal sense without taking 
it in its true historical perspective. Perhaps it is due to this 
misunderstanding, he adds,that jurists and exegetes consider jizyah as a 
mark of degradation for the non-Muslims in Islam and infer corollaries 
reflective of their humiliation
15
.
It appears as if these jurists “in making far-
fetched theories about the term saghirun (used in the Qur’an and upon which 
they constructed their theories) have suggested such provisions as are 
probably contrary to the facts and certainly opposed to the (very) ethics of 
Islam
16
.”
A close study of the early history of jizyah, particularly since its 
imposition by the Prophet till late in the period of the Khulafa Rashidin will 
reveal that it was an obligation through the payment of which non-Mulim 
citizens of the Islamic state were exempted from rendering military service 
and through which they were expected to pay allegiance to the political 
authority of Islam. There is nothing to prove that it was imposed just to 
humiliate the non-Muslims or to make them socially degraded. Had it been 
so then women, children, monks, unemployed, blind,sick and crippled would 
never have been exempted from the payment of jizyah
17
. The categories of 
persons mentioned above were not only exempted from jizyah but were also 
given stipends from the state treasury as and when needy were detected
18
. 
There are living examples of return of jizyah to non-Muslims by the Muslim 
generals when they found themselves unable to protect them against their 
enemies because of their engagements in the war.
19
It is to be observed that jizyah has been misunderstood as a 
discriminatory tax, making as invidious distinction among the citizens of the 
Islamic state. This charge is perhaps based on ignorance of the Islamic 
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polity. “If it discriminated at all, it discriminated against Muslim protectrors 
themselves who were compelled to pay higher taxes and also had the duty to 
fight for the state: there is no compulsory military service for the non-
Muslims
20
. Jizyah was an obligation and non-Muslim citizens agreed to pay 
it. Its payment entitled them to reap the fruit of almost all the rights and 
privileges in the state and at par with the Muslim subjects. To put it into 
other words, non-Muslims owed their loyalty to the state through the 
payment of this tax or rendering military service and enjoyed the rights and 
unfolding of themselves which is the other side of that loyalty. With the 
above preliminary discussion about the concept of dhimma and dhimmi, the 
nature of jizyah and its payment we shall now discuss the rights and status of 
non-Muslims in the Islamic state.