typically
Canadian
attitudes towards animals. I suggest then, that their new genre may
have been a product of dissatisfaction with
their nation’s anthropocentric
attitude towards animals. It is also useful to remember, here, that at a pivotal
stage in the wild animal story’s development, the two men met for the first time
while they were both living in New York. I think we can safely infer that, at some
point, Seton and Roberts were probably exposed to the
“more radical edge” of
animal protection that Ingram describes (222), which seems to have been so
lacking in their own country.
Although I have had to piece together the dual histories of Canada’s
animal welfare and wildlife conservation efforts
—there has been shockingly little
scholarship on both these fronts
—it is clear that they did not progress evenly.
Efforts to protect domesticated animals were in place long before the same
concern was given to wild animals. We can see this legacy in Seton
’s and
Roberts’ direct application of animal rights thinking to their wild animal
characters. For instance, their language of
‘rights’ and ‘kinship’ closely
resembles that of English animal rights campaigner, Henry Salt, whose many
books
—including
Animals’ Rights
(1892),
The Logic of Vegetarianism
(1899),
and
The Creed of Kinship
(1935)
—
were published on both sides of the Atlantic.
Seton’s emphatic conclusion of “Redruff” gives a clear message: “
Have the wild
things no moral or legal rights
? What right has man to inflict such long and
fearful agony on a fellow-creature, simply because that creature does not speak
Allmark-Kent 87
his language?” (
Known
357, emphasis added). In
Animals’ Rights
(1892), Salt
provides an answer:
“wild animals, no less than domestic animals, have their
rights [...] it is not to owned animals merely that we must extend our sympathy
and protection” (45). He adds, however, that the rights owed to wild animals are
less easy to define.
This ambivalence around our duties to wild animals can also be seen in
Roberts’ writing. On the whole, he seems more tentative than Seton about
making declarations on behalf of animals. Yet he uses the language of kinship
frequently, as indicated by the title
Kindred of the Wild
. Moreover, in concluding
the book’s preface, he asserts that the wild animal story can lead us “back to
the old kinship of the earth,
” and an “intimacy” between humans and animals
that would encourage in us all a
more “humane” heart and a greater “spiritual”
understanding (29). The language here is clearly gesturing towards a less
exploitative relationship with animals. However,
it is easy to sense Roberts’
uncertainty about how to proceed. Nonetheless, Salt
asserts that the “central
cause” of animal exploitation is “the disregard of the
natural kinship
between
man and the animals, and the
consequent denial of their rights
” (122, emphasis
added). In other words, Salt suggests that a full recognition of animal-human
kinship will necessarily result in our acceptance that animals have rights. He
explains, however, that
if we desire to cultivate a closer intimacy with the wild animals, it must be
an intimacy based on a genuine love for them as living beings and fellow-
creatures, not on the superior power or cunning by which we draft them
from their native haunts, warp the whole purpose of their lives, and
degrade them to the level of pets, or curiosities, or labour-saving
automations. (53)
A
gain, we can see the connection between Roberts’ and Salt’s discussions of
‘kinship’ and ‘intimacy.’ Moreover, both men emphasize the importance of trying
Allmark-Kent 88
to gain a “sympathetic understanding” (Roberts,
Kindred
27) of all “animals,
both wild and tame” (Salt 53).
As I have stated, however, I have found no evidence of Seton or
Roberts’ direct contact with Salt. Nevertheless, there is an unmistakable
similarity of language and ideas here, and it would not be wholly unsurprising if
the two Canadians were unaware that they originated with Salt. In his preface to
a 1980 edition of
Animals’ Rights
, Peter Singer describes the book as
“the best
of the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works on the rights of animals
” (viii). It
was not the first, of course, but it was the most complete. Indeed, Singer adds:
“Defenders of animals, myself included, have been able to add relatively little to
the essential case Salt outlined in 1892” (viii). Despite his pioneering work in
this and other areas, he remains relatively unknown. At the time, although
Animals Rights’
went through multiple prints in both Lo
ndon and New York, “it
had no real
impact outside humanitarian and vegetarian circles” (ix). Singer
observes that, despite
Salt’s secluded, rural lifestyle, he maintained friendships
with a range of important artistic, literary, political, and philosophical figures of
the day.
1
It is often through them that his ideas reached the pub
lic, “rather than
his own name” (vi). Thus, my aim here is not to imply that Seton and Roberts
necessarily read Salt
’s work, but to trace the core similarities in their attitudes to
animals
—individuality, rights, kinship, sympathy, intimacy—all of which were at
odds with conservation practices at the time. At the beginning of the twentieth
century, the “fragmentary localized practices concerned with controlling the
1
Amongst Salt’s friends, Singer lists “George Bernard Shaw, William Morris, G.K. Chesterton,
the Labour Party leader H.M. Hyndman, Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Ramsay MacDonald
—later
to be the first Labour Prime Minister of Britain
—and Havelock Ellis [...] More momentous still
was his influence on Gandhi, whom Salt had befriended when Gandhi first arrived in England,
alone, unknown and unable to find vegetarian food. Gandhi later wrote that he owed his
thoughts about civil disobedience and noncooperation to Sa
lt’s book on the then little-known
American radical, Henry Thoreau” (vi).
Allmark-Kent 89
kinds and numbers of animals killed” were transforming into a “centralized and
bureaucratic set of policies” which “conceptualized trees, fish, and wildlife as
‘resources’
to be
scientifically managed” (Loo 12, emphasis added). These
policies were only concerned with two ‘categories’ of wild animals:
Until the mid-twentieth century
, the law’s bestiary contained references to
‘game’ and ‘vermin’ only. ‘Game’ was an ever-shifting, diverse
assortment of creatures, some of which were not even native to the
region, but were introduced by local sportsmen as ‘exotics.’ [...] Moose
became game in 1843, followed by pheasants and robins in 1856,
caribou in 1862, non-indigenous American elk in 1894, and
‘animals
valuable o
nly for their fur’
in 1896.
‘Vermin’ were a smaller and somewhat more constant collection of
predators, consisting most commonly of wolves, bears, coyotes, and
cougars. Their undiscerning carnivorous palates, which favoured wild
game as well as domestic livestock, literally earned them a price on their
heads and the undying animosity of lawmakers. (14)
It is clear, then, that like the creation of Banff National Park, this was not nature
preservation but
resource
preservation. Part of Seton
’s and Roberts’ crucial
intervention into these discourses was to defamiliarize common perceptions of
wildlife; not only representing them as
individuals,
as we have seen,
but
challenging the reductive categorizations of ‘game’ and ‘vermin.’ On the surface
it may seem that only charismatic mammals hold interest for Seton, but his
protagonists are almost always members of these two hunted categories.
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