The Wild Animal’s Story: Nonhuman Protagonists in Twentieth-Century Canadian Literature through the Lens of Practical Zoocriticism
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Ernest Thompson Seton
publishes Mammals of Manitoba 1887 – Ernest Thompson Seton experiments with wild animal story in “The Drummer on the Snowshoes” in St. Nicholas 1887 – Canada establishes its first national park: Banff 1880s and 1890s – Nine bills to amend the Cruelty to Animals Act go before the House of Commons (only the one in 1895 was successful) 1880s – Charles G. D. Roberts writes articles for Forest and Stream 1890 – Conwy Lloyd Morgan publishes Animal Life and Intelligence 1891 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Birds of Manitoba 1892 – Henry S. Salt publishes Animals’ Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress 1892 – Charles G. D. Roberts pub lishes “Do Seek Their Meet From God” in Harpers Magazine 1893 – Margaret Marshall Saunders publishes Beautiful Joe , the autobiography of an abused dog —similar to Black Beauty 1894 – Catherine Parr Traill publishes Pearls and Pebbles 1894 – Conwy Lloyd Morgan publishes Introduction to Comparative Psychology 1894 – George Romanes dies 1894 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes “Lobo” in Scribners Monthly 1895 – Henry Williamson born 1895 – Amendment to Cruelty to Animals Act : list of animals covered by the act extended to ‘any wild animal or bird in captivity’ 1896 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Studies in the Art Anatomy of Animals 1896 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Earth’s Enigmas , which includes some animal stories 1898 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Wild Animals I Have Known 1899 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes The Trail of the Sandhill Stag 1899 – Edward L. Thorndike publishes “Do Animals Reason?” in Popular Science Monthly (55) 1900 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes The Biography of a Grizzly 1900 – Conwy Lloyd Morgan publishes Animal Behaviour 1901 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Lives of the Hunted 1902 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Kindred of the Wild Allmark-Kent 264 1903 – John Burroughs publishes “Real and Sham Natural History” in Atlantic Monthly 1904 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Monarch, The Big Bear of Tallac 1904 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes The Watchers of the Trails: A Book of Animal Life 1905 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Animal Heroes 1905 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Red Fox 1907 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes The Haunters of the Silences: A Book of Animal Life 1907 – Theodore Roosevelt publishes “Nature Fakers” 1908 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes The House in the Water: A Book of Animal Stories 1908 – Roderick Haig-Brown born in Sussex 1908 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Kings in Exile 1909 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Fauna of Manitoba 1909 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Life-Histories of North Animals: an Account of the Mammals of Manitoba (two volumes) 1909 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Biography of a Silver Fox 1910 – Charles G. R. Roberts publishes Neighbours Unknown 1911 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes More Kindred of the Wild 1911 – Edward L. Thorndike publishes Animal Intelligence: Experimental Studies 1912 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Babes of the Wild 1912 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Feet of the Furtive 1913 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Hoof and Claw 1913 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Wild Animals at Home 1915 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes The Slum Cat 1915 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes The Legend of the White Reindeer 1916 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Wild Animal Ways 1916 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes The Secret Trails 1918 – Fred Bodsworth born in Port Burwell, Ontario 1921 – R. D. Lawrence born aboard ship off coast of Spain 1922 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Bannertail: The Story of a Gray Squirrel 1922 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes Wisdom of the Wilderness 1924 – Charles G. D. Roberts publishes They Who Walk in the Wild 1931 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Silver: The Life Story of an Atlantic Salmon 1932 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Famous Animal Stories 1932 – Roderick Haig-Brown Publishes Pool and Rapid 1934 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Panther 1934 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Animals Worth Knowing 1937 – Ernest Thompson Seton publishes Biography of an Arctic Fox 1939 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes The Western Angler 1939 – Henry S. Salt dies 1941 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Return to the River 1942 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Timber 1943 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Starbuck Valley Winter 1943 – Charles G. D. Roberts dies 1946 – Ernest Thompson Seton dies Allmark-Kent 265 1946 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes A River Never Sleeps 1948 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Saltwater Summer 1949 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes On the Highest Hill 1950 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Measure of the Year 1950 – Barbara Gowdy is born 1951 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Fisherman’s Spring 1954 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Fisherman’s Winter 1955 – Fred Bodsworth publishes The Last of the Curlews 1959 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Fisherman’s Summer 1959 – Fred Bodsworth publishes The Strange One 1961 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes The Living Land 1962 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes The Whale People 1963 – Alison Baird is born 1964 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes Fisherman’s Fall 1964 – Fred Bodsworth publishes The Atonement of Ashley Morden 1966 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Wildlife in Canada 1967 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The Place in the Forest 1967 – Fred Bodsworth publishes The Sparrow’s Fall 1968 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Where the Water Lilies Grow 1969 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The Poison Makers 1970 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Cry Wild 1970 – Fred Bodsworth publishes Pacific Coast 1974 – Roderick Haig-Brown publishes The Salmon 1974 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Wildlife in North America: Mammals and Wildlife in North America: Birds 1977 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Paddy 1976 – Roderick Haig-Brown dies 1979 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The North Runner 1980 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Secret Go the Wolves 1983 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The Ghost Walker 1983 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Canada’s National Parks 1985 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The Shark 1986 – R. D. Lawrence publishes In Praise of Wolves 1986 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Trans-Canada Country 1988 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The Natural History of Canada 1990 – R. D. Lawrence publishes The White Puma 1993 – R. D. Lawrence publishes Trail of the Wolf 1999 – Alison Baird publishes White as the Waves: A Novel of Moby Dick 1999 – Barbara Gowdy publishes The White Bone Allmark-Kent 266 Glossary of Terms Advocacy – For the sake of brevity, I use this term to encompass the various work (practical, academic, political, and creative) involved in advocating for the conservation, ethical treatment, legal rights, or improved welfare of nonhuman animals. Anecdotal cognitivism – The attribution of “cognitive states to many animals on the basis of observation of particular cases rather than through controlled experiments or manipulation” (Dale Jameison and Marc Bekoff, “On Aims and Methods of Cognitive Ethology” 111). Animal psychology – I employ ‘animal psychology’ as an umbrella term for any scientific studies of animal cognition and emotions. Anthropocentric – Human-centred; it can often be associated with notions of human uniqueness and superiority. Anthropomorphic – “Anthropomorphism refers to attributing human qualities to animals. In the scientific community, using language that suggests animals have intentions, desires, and emotions has been severely criticized as lacking objectivity. […] The irony, of course, is that the more we have studied other animals, even in this detached way, the more we have learned about their complex cognitive and emoti onal capabilities” (Clifton Flynn, “Social Creatures: An Introduction” xv). Behaviourism – “Behaviorism arose in part as an attempt to overcome the anecdotal approach [of Charles Darwin and George Romanes] and to bring rigor to the study of behavior. Controlled experiments rather than field observations provided the primary data, and basic concepts were supposed to be grounded in direct observation. Against this background, animal co nsciousness came to be seen as ‘... mystical, unscientific, Allmark-Kent 267 unnecessary, obs cure, and not amenable to study’” (Jameison and Bekoff 111). Classical Ethology – “Classical ethology developed in Europe with the work of [Konrad] Lorenz and [Niko] Tinbergen, and arrived in America in the post-World War II period […] The roots of classical ethology were in the investigations of Darwin, Charles Otis Whitman, and Oskar Heinroth. Classical ethology signified a return to some of the ideas of Darwin and the early anecdotal cognitivists, especially in its appeals to evolutionary theory, the close association with natural history, and the reliance on anecdote and anthropomorphism in motivating more rigorous study” (111). Cognitive ethology – “The rise of cognitive ethology can conveniently be dated from the publication of Donald Griffin’s The Question of Animal Awareness ” published in 1976 (113). “[Cognitive ethology] can be fined as the comparative, evolutionary, and ecological study of nonhuman animal minds, including thought processes, beliefs, rationality, information processing, intentionality, and consciousness” (Colin Allen and Marc Bekoff, “Animal Minds, Cognitive Ethology, and Ethics” 304). Mechanomorphism – The opposite of anthropomorphism; the act of attributing the qualities of a machine to living being. Speciesism – Richard Ryder coined the term speciesism in 1970. It refers to the different perception and treatment of individuals based on their species; “the failure to accord nonhuman animals equal consideration and respect” (Joan Dunyan, Animal Equality 1). Speciesist language “denigrates or discounts nonhuman animals. Conventional pronoun use, Allmark-Kent 268 for example, terms nonhuman animals, ‘it’ erasing their gender and grouping them with inanimate things” (1). |