Allmark-Kent 81
observed that when these individual animals are present, they are almost
always put to some
use
: either as domesticated companion animals
for humans
or as anthropomorphic literary devices to teach morals to children. Indeed, I find
great
significance in Lucas’ observation that the “animal biography began as a
story
of domesticated animals” (396), because it touches on the fact that the life
story of the
wild
animal (autonomous, separate, and independent from humans)
seems to have been of little interest at this point. This deficit can be understood
through both the general lack of public concern for wildlife in Canada at this
time and broader anthropocentric trends across contemporaneous British and
American literatures. In most writing of this period, the literary animal is not the
subject of its
own
story, but an object of utility in a
human
one: as decoration in
a natural
landscape; as the aggressor in a narrative of human survival; as a
stand-in for humans in a moral tale; as the trophy of a hunt; as saviour,
companion, transport, entertainment, or assistant for human characters; and as
an absence when human characters consume the bodies of animals. If we
return to my models of animal representation in Canadian literature, we can see
that neither the
‘failure of knowing’ nor the ‘acceptance of not-knowing’ is
appropriate for this mid-nineteenth century context. Broadly speaking, I have
observed a
disinterest
in knowing the animal instead. In the examples given
here, it is clear that the animal presence has been relegated to either high
anthropomorphism or mechanomorphic objectification. In the case of the
former, the species’ image is appropriated to clothe essentially human
characters without much thought to their living counterparts, and the latter is so
reductive that it assumes that there is nothing to ‘know’ about the
animal
anyway.
Allmark-Kent 82
It is from this
legacy of disinterest, exploitation, and anthropocentrism,
that Seton
’s and Roberts’ stories began to emerge a few decades later. Public
interest in and concern for animals was growing, the atmosphere of human self-
interest dissipated a little (although not entirely, of course) and, hence, more
writers were turning to nonhuman beings for their protagonists. In his famous
preface to
Kindred of the Wild
(1902), Roberts acknowledges the important
contributions made during this period
by Anna Sewell’s
Black Beauty
(1877),
Margaret Marshall Saunder’s
Beautiful Joe
(1893), and “the ‘Mowgli’ stories of
Mr. Kipling” (27).These authors saw animals as individuals and therefore made
attempts to ‘know’ them, while also encouraging their readers to do the same.
Hence, as Roberts observes,
their “animal characters
think and feel as human
beings would think and feel under like condition
s” (27). In other words, despite
their efforts to increase the nonhuman presence in their respective genres
(
domesticated animal biographies and children’s animal stories), these authors
were still not representing their animals
as animals
:
The real psychology of the animals, so far as we are able to grope our
way toward it by deduction and induction combined, is a very different
thing from the psychology of certain stories of animals
which paved the
way for the present vogue. [...] It is no detraction from the merit of these
books, which have done great service in awakening a sympathetic
understanding of the animals and sharpening our sense of kinship with
all that breathe, to say that their psychology is human (24-7)
Although
Sewell and Saunders’ books were engaging with animal advocacy,
they were not doing the same for animal psychology. Indeed, Lucas observes
that narratives about wild and domesticated animals tend to differ on this point:
“the story about the wild animal has a greater scientific bent” and “tries to avoid
humanizing tendencies” (397). In some cases, it seems as though the perceived
alterity and autonomy of the wild animal discourages easy anthropomorphism,
(my own survey of twentieth-century texts in another chapter would seem to
Allmark-Kent 83
support this
, for instance) and yet this was not the case for Long’s animal
stories. Indeed, as Seton observed of his own early stories, engagement with
animal psychology and use of the ‘scientific’ approach is fundamental to the
genre’s sincere commitment to imagining the lives of wild animals; hence
Roberts’ declaration that, “at its highest point of development,” the animal story
is a “psychological romance constructed on a framework of natural science”
(24).
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