inter
alia, three decisions of the Court that adopt the same reasoning as the Com-
mittee and reach the same conclusion on similar facts.
In Otto E.F.A. Remer v. Germany (1995), a conviction for incitement to racial
hatred by publishing materials denying the gassing of Jews in Nazi Germany
was held to be an interference with the applicant’s right to free speech, but was
justified and necessary in a democratic society for the protection of the rights
and reputations of others.
In Otto-Preminger-Institut v. Austria (1994), a film portraying God, Jesus and
Mary in a manner that could have been deeply offensive to Christians was con-
fiscated by the authorities. The Strasbourg Court held, by a majority, that the
right to freedom of expression carries with it certain duties and responsibilities,
and that the restriction of such a right was justified and necessary in that it had
the legitimate aim of protecting the rights of Christians.
The Court stressed the duty of those who exercise the right to free speech to
avoid expressions that do not contribute to public debate and are gratuitously
offensive to others. See also Wingrove v. U.K. (1996), where the Judges in
Strasbourg decided that state authorities are in a better position than the inter-
national judge to give an opinion as to what is required nationally to prevent
offence to persons of particular religious beliefs.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
104
The duty and responsibility of those who exercise the right to free speech to
avoid expressions that do not contribute to public debate and are gratuitously
offensive to others, is particularly important when several religions co-exist in a
given country. It will then be necessary for the state authorities, in furtherance of
their positive obligation to comply with international standards:
a. to respect the rights of individuals, groups of individuals or communities;
b. to protect them from any quarter against any advocacy of religious hatred that
constitutes imminent acts of discrimination, hostility or violence against them and
take remedial action; and
c. to promote a culture of inter-religious tolerance and harmony.
To attain these legitimate objectives, the state will thus be required to impose jus-
tifiable and proportionate restrictions on the right to free speech, as was done in
Otto Preminger and Wingrove, cited above, in order to reconcile the interests of
the various religious groups or communities in a democratic society, in accord-
ance with the values of pluralism, tolerance and broad-mindedness.
It should come as no surprise that the stand of the UN is substantially identical to
that of European Court of Human Rights, given that the articles relating to free-
dom of expression and freedom of belief in both the Covenant and the European
Convention on Human Rights (the Convention) are couched in almost identical
terms and that those countries which have ratified the Covenant include those
that are parties to the Convention, and must fulfil their international obligations
and implement the provisions of the Covenant in their respective domestic legal
orders.
105
Chapter VII of the Greek Penal Code on “Offences against religious peace”
deals with the offences of malicious blasphemy, common blasphemy, religious
insult and disturbance of religious gatherings.
According to the definition of malicious blasphemy, whoever publicly and mali-
ciously offends God in any way whatsoever is punishable with imprisonment for
a term of up to two years. According to the definition of common blasphemy,
whoever publicly manifests a lack of respect for the divine is punishable with
imprisonment for a term of up to three months. According to the definition of
religious insult, whoever publicly and maliciously insults the Eastern Orthodox
Church in Christ, or another religion tolerated in Greece, in any way whatsoever
is punishable with imprisonment for a term of up to two years. In relation to the
disturbance of religious gatherings, whoever maliciously attempts to prevent or
intentionally disrupts a religious worship gathering or ceremony allowed by pol-
ity, as well as anyone who, inside a church or a place designated for a religious
gathering tolerated by polity, commits insulting and offending acts is punishable
with imprisonment for a term of up to two years; a different provision punishes
insult against the deceased.
Case law
The development of case law on these offences highlights their structurally-
ingrained problems. To begin with, according to firmly established case law
(Supreme Court 360/64, 666/76, 233/78, 1166/78, 820/81, 928/84,
1869/84, 119/88, 422/98, Admiralty Court of Piraeus sitting as a Board
22/97, Opinion of the Public Prosecutor to the Court of First Instance of Thessal-
oniki 6/97), blasphemy is any public manifestation whatsoever (oral, in writing,
by way of images, symbols and/or gestures) involving mockery, affront, offen-
sive or vulgar expressions against God as the Supreme Being of monotheistic
religions or against the divine, including anything that is considered sacred by
a recognised religion. A public manifestation is any manifestation that may be
perceived by an undetermined number of people irrespective of whether it took
place in a public area or was actually perceived by anyone. Religious insult is
any public manifestation of contempt by way of vituperative or vile utterances
or by the vile abuse of doctrines, symbols or customs in any form whatsoever.
7. Blasphemy in the Greek Orthodox legal tradition
Dimitris Sarafianos,
Member of the Board, Hellenic League for Human Rights, Greece
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
106
The interpretation of the notion of malice, on the other hand, has evolved in case
law: at first, even the intention of derisory use of religious symbols was enough to
qualify the offence as malicious. Thus, in the Supreme Court decision 233/78,
the derisory use of the Credo led to the condemnation of the authors of the revue
69 ways to laugh because the target of the satire was obviously the recent junta
and the role of the Church during that period (mostly, the Church’s indifference
to the oppression and violation of human rights: God is depicted as totally
oblivious of 21 April, the day of the coup d’état, because He was preparing for
Easter). In contrast, according to the Supreme Court decisions 928/1984 and
1869/1984 (just six years later), the term “malicious” incorporates a vilifying
act aimed directly at offending a religion for the offender’s gratification. This line
of argument was used to reverse the sentence against the playwright of The Saint
of Preveza, which satirised the then-recent scandal involving the Metropolitan of
Preveza, for lack of motivation in the element of malice.
This turning point in case law significantly restricted the scope of malicious blas-
phemy and malicious religious insult (see Decision 2058/93 of the Magistrates’
Court of Thessaloniki sitting as a Board, Order 47/93 of the Public Prosecu-
tor of Thessaloniki, both cases on the motion picture Jesus of Montreal, and
Decision 4959/94 of the Magistrate’s Court of Athens sitting as a Board in
the case of Black Hole). But it did not affect the scope of blasphemy simpliciter,
which is still consistently punished by the courts even when it is obvious that the
offender does not express indignation against God or religion but against a spe-
cific person (see Supreme Court 119/88, 1046/91, Appellate Court of Athens
5346
α
-5347/90).
This turnaround led the faithful, who felt scandalised by certain art works, to redir-
ect their efforts from the criminal to the civil courts to obtain injunctions prevent-
ing the exhibition of such works, arguing that by offending God and religion
the works also offended them personally. At first, the courts upheld such motions
(Court of First Instance of Athens 17115/88 in the renowned case of Scorsese’s
film The Last Temptation, based on the book by N. Kazantzakis, who was excom-
municated by the Church), arguing that religious insult (qualified as malicious
by reference to case law prior to 1978) encroaches upon the religious feelings
and the religious freedom of others, both of which are protected as moral-social
values, as social and legal interests worthy of protection to the benefit of civilisa-
tion and the polity. According to this decision, religion is not a purely personal
affair, a wholly inner relationship of the soul with God, irrelevant to the state, but
is the foundation of the state, a vector of spiritual civilisation affecting not only the
feelings and thoughts, but also the actions, of human beings. The same decision
also found that the projection of the motion picture inspired strong protests, dem-
onstrations and discontent, which threatened order and peace among civilians.
The decision undertook a flawed balancing exercise between artistic creation and
religious feeling, clearly taking a stance in favour of the latter, as an obvious limit
Conference on Art and Sacred Beliefs: from Collision to Co-existence
107
to freedom of art, also arguing that cinematographic representation is perceived
as “another reality”.
By contrast, in its decision 5208/00, in the case of the book M
v
(M to the power
of n), the Court of First Instance of Athens found that this allegorical work of lit-
erature does not qualify as malicious insult against religion because its target
is something else (the condemnation of misogyny in general) and it does not
attack religion as such; therefore, it cannot be considered that the personality
of the complainants, as reflected in their religious feelings, is offended. Besides,
works of literature are protected by the Constitution as works of art and, since
freedom of art seeks to protect over-riding social considerations, it can accom-
modate offences against personality insofar as they do not infringe upon human
value. Now, in our opinion, it is questionable whether a work of art can infringe
upon human value at all. But there is no doubt that personality cannot possibly
be infringed on when the abuse or derision is not directed against a specific
person and such person is deemed to be offended indirectly and by reflex (see
Supreme Court 1298/2002).
And even in the event of a direct offence of personality, it must be investigated
whether freedom of art through satire or criticism prevails (for both the artist and
the public enjoying the work). But our intention is not to dwell on this point
66
but
to reflect more systematically on the problems arising from the inclusion of these
offences in our legal system. Regrettably, this reflection has become very top-
ical lately because the Greek judiciary has reverted all too easily to its former
practice, bringing the offences of malicious blasphemy and religious insult to the
forefront again (a sign of our times).
On the occasion of the presentation of the painting Asperges me by Thierry de
Cordier in the Outlook exhibition, the Magistrate’s Court of Athens, in its deci-
sion 44540/06, found no malice in compliance with the aforementioned case
law of the Supreme Court. This case has left us at the pinnacle of judicial art
criticism in the committal, which characterised the work as despicable, offend-
ing public decorum and as “an alleged work of art” which is not part of human-
ity’s artistic creation and does not contribute to promoting human knowledge
and propriety. Gerhard Haderer’s cartoon on the life of Jesus, initially the object
of a confiscation order, was qualified as malicious religious insult by the Three-
Member Magistrates Court of Athens mainly due to the chemical constitution
of incense, which was proved not to contain any ingredient similar to hashish
(as opposed to a footnote to that effect by the cartoonist). The Athens Appellate
Court, in its decision 4532/05, spared the cartoon because of its humorous
nature, which excluded malice on part of the cartoonist.
66
.
It is thoroughly discussed in the book by Professor S. Tsakyrakis, Religion v. Art, Athens: Polis,
2006.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
108
The reasoning behind these decisions
A first problem that can be identified is the motivation of related decisions:
although the notion of malice is adequately discussed, no consideration is given
to what can qualify as blasphemous. All instances of derision, scornful remarks
and manifestations of “ill-will” are taken as blasphemous per se. Even if we
were to assume that what is blasphemous is to be decided each time accord-
ing to the limits set by the religious community involved, one would still expect
discussion of the motivation to make reference to theological texts (the issue is
not only theoretical if one takes into account Matthew 12: 31-32: “and whoso-
ever speaketh a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him”). And
yet, it does not. For, though the normative scope of the provision encompasses
all religions, all court decrees so far issued are for blasphemy against the dom-
inant religion (no-one from the dominant religion or the old-calendar monks has
been prosecuted for blasphemy, for instance, for comparing Muhammad or the
Pope to Satan) and what counts as blasphemy is taken as self-evident – that is,
self-evident to the faithful of the majority, which usually includes the judge giving
the judgment.
A more critical stance is to identify the legal good protected by the above provi-
sions. It is acknowledged, and rightly so, by both case law and jurisprudence,
that these laws do not protect God, since God does not need protection.
67
Therefore, the protected legal good is to be looked for in the religious feelings
of believers, in religious peace as a particular aspect of social peace, in public
order and good conduct, and in religion as such.
68
As the recitals of the 1933
draft Penal Code (recital 203) typically point out, it is irrelevant whether the per-
sons who are aware of the affront are scandalised or experience any reaction
whatever, because the over-riding public interest here lies in fortifying religious
feeling among the people. However, the reason for punishing the act in question
is the undermining of religious peace.
If we proceed to examine the above legal goods we will draw these two
conclusions.
First, religious feeling does not consist of the actual feelings of any particu-
lar believer as a reflection of his/her personality. Blasphemy and insult are
treated as distinct offences: blasphemy is prosecuted ex officio (there is a direct
public interest in prosecuting this offence, as the recitals of the 1933 draft
Penal Code put it), whereas insult is prosecuted only on complaint. As a conse-
quence, indictment for the one cannot be converted into indictment for the other
(Supreme Court 1112/86) and it is not possible to join the proceedings as a
civil party (Supreme Court 1298/2002, Appellate Court of Piraeus 92/2001,
67
.
I. Gafos, “Offences against religious peace in our Penal Code”, Penal Chronicles (1958),
p. 513; G. Krippas, “The crime of malicious blasphemy”, Penal Chronicles (1975), p. 459; M. Alba-
nou, “The crime of malicious blasphemy according to art”, 198 PC, Penal Justice (2001), p. 878.
68
.
Gafos, “Offences”, p. 515; Αth. Kontaxis, Penal Code, Athens 1991, 1251.
Conference on Art and Sacred Beliefs: from Collision to Co-existence
109
Three-Member Magistrates Court of Athens 18518/97). This view is also cor-
rect for the particular reason that for an act to qualify as the offence in question
it is not a requirement that an actual person be offended. The public utterance
of the blasphemous words or commission of the blasphemous acts in such a way
as could be perceived by persons lying outside the immediate surroundings of
the defendant suffices. In this way, (religious) feeling is reified. It is immanent in
the public domain and can be infringed upon without the intervention of actual
people. It is as if there was a legal fiction to the effect that the state itself had
religious feelings. This is a blatantly ideological construct and cannot offer suf-
ficient grounds for criminal punishment, as is the case for all non-personalised
“feelings” (citizens’ sense of security, for example).
Second, the protection of religious peace seems to have a more substantive
basis to it: it can be readily understood that blasphemy creates a risk of arousing
passions that may lead the faithful to committing acts that disrupt public order
and good conduct.
69
The same point can, of course, be made about arousing
political or football passions. The difference is that the notion of religious peace
does not require that violent acts be committed in advance, as it does in the
case of Article 192 of the Penal Code (causing or inciting citizens to acts of
violence) according to its correct interpretation. It is not even necessary that the
offender intended to arouse citizens or was aware that his/her acts were capa-
ble of arousing citizens. Here again, religious peace is construed as an inde-
pendent, intangible good – one that may be harmed by the mere utterance of
the blasphemous words or the commission of the blasphemous act – as a kind of
religious appeasement, a religious calm that is not to be disrupted.
Obviously, this ideological construct is no more able to offer legitimate grounds
for specific criminal offences. But something else needs to be underlined: all
these crimes of “arousing” citizens – those that do not fall within the scope of
instigating crimes against specific material goods (life, physical integrity, prop-
erty), namely those that do not aim to persuade others to commit acts that they
would not have committed otherwise, but instead incite acts of violence indirectly
and by reflex (in the sense that a violent act is the reflex response to such incite-
ment) – comprise an oxymoron: their punishment leads to the satisfaction of
the perpetrators of violent acts. So this is how the law seems to understand the
request of a religious community or, indeed, a request by members of a political
party or a football team: do not provoke us or we will attack you or, even worse,
we will resort to generalised violence.
Thus, in such cases the protected legal good behind public order (which can be
disrupted by acts of violence, and only by such) seems to be the intolerance of
others, and in its more vicious form. How such a view might be accepted in the
context of a liberal constitution desirous to promote pluralism through freedom
of expression, as well as freedom of artistic and scientific endeavour, is utterly
69
.
Gafos, “Offences”, Penal Chronicles (1958), p. 516.
Blasphemy, insult and hatred
110
baffling. Worse still, if these offences were meant to protect religious peace,
the law seems to consider that religious communities are much more willing to
resort to acts offending public order than are other communities (political, foot-
ball) since their peace can be disrupted by blasphemy, which seems to be con-
sidered, by definition, capable of inciting violence.
Clearly, this view is not particularly flattering to religious communities and one
might expect them to demand the abolition of these offences. It implies a pater-
nalistic logic that sees the state as a protector taking the faithful (independ-
ently of creed) under its wing and punishing whoever, by word or symbolic
act, instils hatred and discord in their hearts or, worse still, activates triggers
of immanent hatred. That very same logic lay behind the Supreme Court deci-
sion 208/1991, which upheld as complete and legitimate the motivation of the
Appellate Court in convicting candidate MPs, who had circulated a memo char-
acterising the Muslim minority of western Thrace as Turkish, for disturbance of
the social peace on the grounds that in this way they consciously sought to instil
and sow the seeds of discord, hatred and animosity in the hearts of Greek Mus-
lims against Greek Christians, which soon led to acts of violence (by Christians,
for what it’s worth …).
The only provision that could find justification in the protection of religious peace,
construed as protection of the right to the unhindered and active celebration of
religious convictions, is the offence of disturbing religious gatherings.
Blasphemy and art
How then is the relationship between blasphemy and art to be treated in the
context of criminal law? Jurisprudence is met with strong criticism for failing to
consider the perpetration of these offences in the light of the constitutionally-
embedded freedom of art. It is argued that freedom of art is safeguarded without
reservation in the constitution and, in case of conflict between the two injured
rights, freedom of art should prevail.
70
Indeed, this argument is not without foun-
dation.
71
However, in order to proceed to a balancing exercise, there must be a
conflict of rights that emanate from constitutionally-protected legal goods.
Freedom of art and religious freedom can be weighed against each other in the
context of criminal law only in cases where the exercise of artistic activity dis-
rupts a religious gathering. It is in this context that an eventually extreme aggres-
sive behaviour of artistic activity might be found punishable and the interpreter
of the law would then be obliged to balance the two rights. Such a balancing
exercise has no place on any other occasion because it would involve a conflict
between a constitutionally-protected right and legal good (artistic activity) and
70
.
Tsakyrakis, Religion v. Art, p. 187f. contra P. Dagtoglou, Civic Rights, Athens 1991, p. 924, and
Albanou, “The crime of malicious blasphemy”, p. 880.
71
.
Considering, of course, that the unity of Constitution calls for a practical harmonisation of all
rights: see G. Theodosis, Freedom of Art, Athens 2000, p. 142f., Tsakyrakis, Religion v. Art, p. 199f.
Conference on Art and Sacred Beliefs: from Collision to Co-existence
111
a non-protected and constitutionally disapproved practice: the intolerant request
to ban the exercise of a constitutionally-protected right.
But let us consider the event of religion itself as the interest that is protected by
the offences of blasphemy and religious insult. As decision 17115/88 of the
Court of First Instance of Athens typically expounds, religion is the foundation of
the state. If this is true, then indeed these offences acquire a peculiar materiality:
no-one questions the power of the state to protect itself from internal or external
threats against the integrity of the country, its political organisation or its ability
to efficiently enforce the state’s will; if, by protecting religion, the state ultimately
protects itself then the materiality of the protected good becomes crystal clear.
This, however, would entail that irreligious people (and, more so, atheists) can-
not be citizens of such a state. Moreover, religion Dostları ilə paylaş: |