Effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms
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E
FFECTS OF OCEAN ACIDIFICATION ON MARINE ORGANISMS
T
YPE
III
I
NDICATOR
Ocean chemistry is changing at an unprecedented rate due to anthropogenic carbon
dioxide (CO
2
) emissions to the atmosphere. When CO
2
is absorbed by seawater,
chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH in a process known as “ocean
acidification” (see
Acidification of coastal waters indicator).
Several biological processes in marine organisms are sensitive to changes in seawater
chemistry. The best-documented and mostly widely observed biological effects are due
to a reduction in carbonate ion — a building block for shell forming organisms — under
reduced pH conditions. Decreased calcification rates and/or shell dissolution has been
observed in a wide range of shell-forming organisms, including plankton, mollusks, and
corals. These processes have been elucidated in controlled
laboratory experiments,
including documentation of decreased shell size/thickness in shellfish. Through
modeling, researchers have estimated that pteropod shell dissolution in response to
increasingly acidic conditions experienced during seasonal upwelling events has
increased ~19-26 percent along the US West Coast, including California, since the
Industrial Revolution (Feely et al., 2016).
Impacts on the physiology and behavior of marine species can accrue as organisms
face greater challenges in maintaining internal acid-base balance in ocean waters of
lower pH (e.g., Munday et al., 2009; Somero et al., 2016; Jellison et al., 2016). Broader
ecological consequences are additionally possible (Gaylord et al., 2015), including
altered predator-prey relationships (e.g. Ferrari et al., 2011; Kroeker et al., 2014;
Sanford et al. 2014), and degradation of habitat provisioning by structure-forming taxa
like corals and mussels (e.g., Sunday et al., 2016). Current knowledge regarding
changes to ocean chemistry and impacts on California
species has been summarized
by the West Coast Ocean Acidification & Hypoxia Panel (Chan et al., 2016). However,
there is still much to learn about biological consequences of ocean acidification using
‘indicator species’ in the field.
The California Current Large Marine Ecosystem (CCLME) is the environment that spans
from southern British Columbia to Baja California and includes US-controlled waters,
the land-sea interface and adjacent wetlands. This ecosystem may provide early
indication of the impacts of ocean acidification and decreasing dissolved oxygen due to
its unique oceanography (Feely et al., 2008; Hauri et al., 2009). In particular, the wind-
driven process of seasonal coastal upwelling brings deeper, high-CO
2
water to the
surface where it bathes shoreline communities. In upwelled waters, elevated CO
2
conditions co-occur with low dissolved oxygen concentrations (hypoxia). As a result,
California’s coastal waters may reach acidic and low oxygen conditions well before this
is observed on a global scale (Feely et al., 2008). As such, California is positioned to
provide for early examination of effects of ocean acidification and hypoxia.
Regional biological indicators can help improve the understanding of these impacts on
California’s varied smaller-scale ocean ecosystems. A first step towards this goal was
Effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms
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accomplished by the Greater Farallones National Marine Sanctuary Advisory Council in
the
publication of Ocean Climate Indicators: A Monitoring Inventory and Plan for
Tracking Climate Change in the North-Central California Coast and Ocean Region
(Duncan et al., 2013). This plan recommends indicator species for processes such as
climate change, ocean acidification, and hypoxia that include: primary producers, mid-
trophic level species, habitat forming species, and seabirds. A comprehensive review
and analysis of biological responses to ocean acidification provides additional possible
indicator species and other guidance for indicators of ocean acidification (Kroeker et al.,
2013). Results suggest that variables such as calcification and growth in key marine
calcifiers are important to consider.
Other potential effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms that might be tracked
include:
•
Changes in ionic form of marine nutrients and potentially harmful substances
(e.g., metals)
•
Increased photosynthetic rates in
carbon-fixing organisms
•
Altered reproduction and survival in organisms
•
Reduced olfaction (sensory function) in fish
•
Changes in the strength or outcome of species interactions (including
predation, herbivory, and competition)
In considering potential indicator species, the most successful target organisms are
often those that are important community members and are present over a wide
geographic extent, enabling their performance to operate as a metric of broader
ecosystem function. Some potential species for tracking the biological impacts of ocean
acidification in California waters are:
• The California mussel (
Mytilus californianus) - a classic ‘foundation species’ that
dramatically influences community structure both through its dominant status and
because mussel beds provide habitat for hundreds of other species that reside
within them (Suchanek, 1992). The
distribution of M. californianus spans the
entire west coast of the US (Morris et al., 1980), and the species is found in most
of the state’s shoreline Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
M. californianus has
already been identified as an indicator species by two National Marine
Sanctuaries in California. Research is ongoing to determine whether
M. californianus can be utilized as an ‘early warning’ indicator of biological
change due to ocean acidification and other stressors (Gaylord et al., 2011;
California’s Fourth Climate Change Assessment).
• Krill, a fundamental and important component of the marine food web. Krill have
recently been shown to be sensitive to ocean acidification, with
responses that
include reductions in growth rates and increased mortality (e.g., Cooper et al.,
2016; McLaskey et al., 2016). Krill therefore may provide an early indication of
food web impacts from ocean acidification.
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• Pelagic snails (pteropods) (see Figure 1), species which have delicate shells that
are subject to severe dissolution when exposed to low pH seawater. Recent
studies of the pteropod
Limacina helicina within
the California Current Large
Marine Ecosystem indicate that 24 percent of offshore individuals and 53 percent
of nearshore individuals exhibited signs of severe shell dissolution (Bednaršek et
al., 2014). Continued acidification is expected to place these nearshore
populations of pteropods at particular risk (Bednaršek et al., 2014; Feely et al.,
2016; Bednaršek et al., 2017).