Moscow-Leningrad Phonological schools

Moscow-Leningrad Phonological schools

Phonology is part of the science of phonetics. It appeared in the 30s of the last century. Saussure is believed to have done this. In his work, the term phoneme first appears. Other linguists believe that phonology appeared in the works of I.A. Baudouin de Courthune. This is the teaching about the sound of the voice. Linguists are faced with the need to identify in the variety of audible sounds of a given language a limited number of basic sound units - phonemes. Sounds are combined into phonemes not acoustically. principle, but in general functional, i.e. if sounds are pronounced differently, but perform the same function (form the same root, prefix), then these are varieties of phonemes. The concepts of "phoneme" and "sound of speech" do not coincide, since a phoneme can consist of more than just one sound. Two phonemes can sound as one sound (stitch together).

Tasks: to establish the shortest sound unit (phoneme), to determine the phonemic composition of various languages.

I.A. Baudouin de Courthune distinguished between such concepts as sound (phonation) and phoneme, as the psychic equivalent of sound.

At the heart of different versions of pronouncing the same sound is something in common, this common will be a phoneme.

Phoneme definitions:

A phoneme is a set of distinctive features, a set of features that distinguish one phoneme from another.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of expression plan, which is the result of dividing text into smaller parts.

A phoneme is an abstract unit that is realized in speech as a class of allophones.

A phoneme is the smallest unit of the sound system of a language, which is an element of the sound shell of words and morphemes, which serves to distinguish them.

In speech, we do not pronounce phonemes, but sounds (allophones). Some linguists believe that a phoneme is a one-sided unit, that is, it only has a signifier. Others believe that the phoneme is a two-sided unit; they believe that the meaningful function of a phoneme is a meaningful function.

· Sense-distinguishing function is the main one.

· Signal - the appearance of a phoneme in any position can signal something.

Phonological schools:

· Moscow (they do not consider the sound in isolation, they consider it in a morphophoneme, if, for example, we change the sound "and" to "s", the meaning does not change, so these are variants of the same phoneme)

Petersburg (based on the acoustic characteristics of a phoneme, if specific characteristics of sound can be distinguished, this will be an independent phoneme)

Phonemes can enter into

- paradigmatic syntagmatic relations

- distributive and in the relationship of identity and difference (opposition)

Opposition types:

Privative (two members of the opposition, elements are considered according to one attribute. The element that has a sign is called marked, an element that does not have - unmarked)

Gradual (several members of the opposition, each of the components has the desired feature, but to a different degree)

Equipolent (all elements are logically equal and each member of the opposition has its own set of features, some of these features will be common to all members of the opposition, and some of the features will be differential)

· One-dimensional (common features are not characteristic of any other opposition of a given language: "d", "t" - consonants, noisy, occlusive, solid, front-lingual, etc.)

· Multidimensional (common signs are found in other oppositions of a given language: "b", "k" will be repeated in oppositions "p", "g")

· Constants ("m", "l"),

· Neutralized ("d", "t")

Correlation oppositions are those whose members differ in only one feature, coincide in all others. They, in turn, can be closed (two members - d-t); open (more than 2 members of p-t-k), enhance any sign, for example, pitch.

The organization of phonemes into a system of oppositions is different in each given language, it is determined by the originality of the language, the proportions of vowels and cons., Their distribution according to positions, etc. Thus, the description of phonetics by K.-L. language should be represented not by a random enumeration of sounds, but in the form of sequential. A system covering the number and grouping of phonemes.

Perceptual function - the ability to perceive speech sounds and their combinations by the organ of hearing.

Sounds not like physical. phenomenon, but as a public one.

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PHONOLOGY

PHONOLOGY(FROM THE GREEK.PHONE - SOUND AND ... LOGIC),SECTION LINGUISTICS,THE SCIENCE OF THE SOUND STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE, WHICH STUDIES THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF THE SMALLEST INSIGNIFICANT UNITS OF LANGUAGE (SYLLABLES, PHONEMES).F. DIFFERS FROM PHONETICSTHE FACT THAT THE FOCUS OF HER ATTENTION IS NOT THE SOUNDS THEMSELVES AS A PHYSICAL. A GIVEN, AND THE ROLE (FUNCTION) THAT THEY PERFORM IN SPEECH AS COMPONENTS OF MORE COMPLEX SIGNIFICANT UNITS - MORPHEME, WORDS.THEREFORE, PHONETICS IS SOMETIMES CALLED FUNCTION, PHONETICS. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHONETICS AND PHONETICS, ACCORDING TO N.S. TRUBETSKOY,BOILS DOWN TO THE FACT THAT THE BEGINNING OF ANY PHONOLOGICAL. DESCRIPTIONS CONSISTS IN IDENTIFYING THE MEANING OF DISTINGUISHING. SOUND CONTRASTS; PHONETIC. THE DESCRIPTION IS TAKEN AS A STARTING POINT AND MATERIAL BASE. MAIN THE UNIT OF F. IS A PHONEME, DOS. THE OBJECT OF RESEARCH IS OPPOSITION (OPPOSITION)PHONEMES THAT TOGETHER FORM PHONOLOGICAL. LANGUAGE SYSTEM (PHONOLOGICAL. PARADIGMATICS).THE DESCRIPTION OF THE PHONEME SYSTEM INVOLVES THE USE OF THE TERMS DISTINGUISH. SIGNS (RP) THAT SERVE AS THE BASIS FOR OPPOSING PHONEMES. RP ARE FORMULATED AS A GENERALIZATION OF THE ARTICULATION. AND ACOUSTIC THE PROPERTIES OF SOUNDS THAT IMPLEMENT A PARTICULAR PHONEME (DEAFNESS - VOICEDNESS, OPENNESS - CLOSENESS, ETC.). THE MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPT OF F. IS THE CONCEPT OF POSITION (SEE. POSITIONPHONOLOGICAL), A CUT ALLOWS YOU TO DESCRIBE THE PHONOLOGICAL. SYNTAGMATICS,THAT IS, THE RULES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PHONEMES IN VARIOUS CONDITIONS OF THEIR OCCURRENCE IN THE SPEECH SEQUENCE AND, IN PARTICULAR, THE RULES NEUTRALIZATIONPHONEMIC OPPOSITIONS AND POSITIONAL VARIABILITY OF PHONEMES.

IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE THESIS ON THE LEVEL ORGANIZATION OF THE LANGUAGE (SEE. LANGUAGE LEVELS) INF. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SEGMENT (PHONEMIC) AND SUPER-SEGMENT (PROSODIC) LEVELS; THE LATTER HAS ITS OWN UNITS, PARALLEL TO THE PHONEMES OF THE SEGMENT LEVEL - PROSODEMS, TONEMESAND ETC.

(CM. SUPER-SEGMENTED LANGUAGE UNITS),TO-RYE ALSO LEND THEMSELVES TO DESCRIPTION IN TERMS OF SPECIAL RPS (FOR EXAMPLE, REGISTER AND CONTOUR SIGNS WHEN DESCRIBING TONE OPPOSITIONS). BOTH SEGMENTAL AND SUPER-SEGMENTAL F. UNITS CAN PERFORM MEANINGFUL DIFFERENTIATION. FUNCTION (TO PROMOTE THE RECOGNITION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF SIGNIFICANT UNITS OF THE LANGUAGE), WHICH IS THE MAIN ONE FOR THEM. IN ADDITION, F. STUDIES THE DELIMITATION (DIFFERENTIATING) FUNCTION OF SOUND UNITS, CONSISTING IN SIGNALING THE BOUNDARIES OF WORDS AND MORPHEMES IN THE STREAM OF SPEECH, IN CONNECTION WITH WHICH THEY SPEAK OF PHONOLOGICAL. BOUNDARY SIGNALS (EG, FIXED STRESS IN CZECH INDICATES THE BEGINNING OF A WORD; PHONEMES [H] AND [N] IN IT. LANG.POSSIBLE - RESPECTIVELY - ONLY AT THE BEGINNING AND AT THE END OF A WORD, WHILE THEY ARE INDICATORS OF ITS BOUNDARIES). FINALLY, THE THIRD FUNCTION IS PHONOLOGICAL. UNITS, CH. ARR. SUPER-SEGMENTAL (DURATION, PITCH, ETC.), - EXPRESSIVE (EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONAL STATE OF THE SPEAKER AND HIS ATTITUDE TO THE REPORTED).

ALONG WITH SYNCHRONOUS. F. (SEE. SYNCHRONY),STUDYING PHONOLOGICAL. SYSTEM OF LANGUAGE IN A CERTAIN HISTORICAL. PERIOD, THERE IS A DIACHRONIC. F. (SEE. DIACHRONY),GIVING PHONOLOGICAL. EXPLANATION OF SOUND CHANGES IN THE HISTORY OF THE LANGUAGE BY DESCRIBING THE PROCESSES OF PHONOLOGIZATION, DEFONOLOGIZATION AND REFONOLOGIZATION OF SOUND DIFFERENCES, I.E., FOR EXAMPLE, THE TRANSFORMATION OF POSITIONAL VARIANTS OF ONE PHONEME INTO INDEPENDENT ONES. PHONEMES, OR, CONVERSELY, THE DISAPPEARANCE OF A CERTAIN PHONEMIC OPPOSITION, OR, FINALLY, A CHANGE IN THE BASIS OF THE PHONEMIC OPPOSITION.

IN THE 70S. 20TH CENTURY GENERATIVE PHYSICS DEVELOPS AS PART OF THE GENERAL THEORY OF GENERATIVE GRAMMAR (SEE SEC. MATHEMATICAL LINGUISTICS).IT IS CONSTRUCTED AS A SYSTEM OF RULES FOR PLACING STRESS AND RULES FOR EXPANDING ABSTRACT SYMBOLS OF MORPHEMES INTO CONCRETE SOUND CHAINS. IN THE GENERATING F. THE CENTER. THE UNIT IS NO LONGER THE PHONEME, BUT THE RP, SINCE IT IS IN TERMS OF RP AND POSITIONS THAT ALL PHONOLOGICAL IS FORMULATED. REGULATIONS. THE IDEAS OF GENERATIVE PHYTOSIS ARE APPLIED BOTH IN SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC ONES. F.

F. AS AN INDEPENDENT LINGUISTIC. DISCIPLINE IN ITS MODERN. UNDERSTANDING DEVELOPED IN THE 20-30S. 20 CENTURY; ITS CREATORS WERE N. S. TRUBETSKOY, R. JACOBSON,S.O. KARTSEVSKY,OUTLINED THE MAIN. F.'S IDEAS AT THE 1ST MEZHDUNAR. CONGRESS OF LINGUISTS (THE HAGUE, 1928). THE MOST IMPORTANT MILESTONE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHONOLOGY WAS TRUBETSKOY'S BOOK FUNDAMENTALS OF PHONOLOGY (1ST GERMAN EDITION, 1939) - THE FIRST SYSTEMATIC BOOK. A STATEMENT OF THE TASKS, PRINCIPLES, AND METHODS OF PHYSICS. HOWEVER, THE PREREQUISITES FOR THE CREATION OF PHYSICS WERE FORMED BACK IN THE END. 19TH CENTURY THANKS TO THE LABORS OF HIM. SCIENTIST I. WINTELER AND ENGLISH. THE SCIENTIST G. SWEET; ESSENTIAL GENERAL THEORETICAL. F. DE SAUSSUREAND K. BUHLER.A PARTICULARLY GREAT CONTRIBUTION TO THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHONOLOGY I.A. BAUDOUIN DE COURTENAY.HIS WORKS FOR THE FIRST TIME GIVE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF \U200B\U200BA PHONEME AND ITS FEATURES, ALTHOUGH OVER TIME THIS CONCEPT HAS CHANGED. BASED ON THE RESEARCH OF BAUDOUIN DE COURTENAY, TWO FATHERLANDS EMERGED. PHONOLOGICAL SCHOOLS - LENINGRAD (L. V. SHCHERBA, L. R. ZINDER, M. I. MATUSEVICH, L. V. BONDARKO AND OTHERS) AND MOSCOW (V. N. SIDOROV, R. I. AVANESOV, P. S. KUZNETSOV, A.A. REFORMATSKY, A.M.SUKHOTIN, M.V. PANOV, ETC.) - AND THE ORIGINAL CONCEPT OF S.I. BERNSTEIN.MAIN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THESE SCHOOLS LIES IN THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE PHONEME AND THE DEGREE OF AUTONOMY OF PHYTOSIS IN RELATION TO MORPHOLOGY (THE ROLE OF THE MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERION IN DETERMINING THE IDENTITY OF PHONEMES). IN EUROPE. LINGUISTICS, F. PROBLEMS WERE DEVELOPED IN THE WORKS OF MEMBERS PRAGUE LINGUISTIC CIRCLE -MAIN PHONOLOGICAL CENTER IN EUROPE - AND LONDON PHONOLOGICAL. SCHOOLS (THE FOUNDER WAS D. JONES; FROM THE 40S IT WAS CALLED THE LONDON LINGUISTIC SCHOOL); ESPECIALLY SIGNIFICANT IS THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE LATTER TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUPER-SEGMENTAL F. (THE WORKS OF J. FURSE, W. ALLEN, F. PALMER, R. ROBINS, AND OTHERS) IN THE 40-60S. 20TH CENTURY F. WAS DEVELOPED TO A LESSER EXTENT WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF THE COPENHAGEN LINGUISTIC. SCHOOLS (SEE. GLOSEMATICS).THE DEVELOPMENT OF F. WAS SIGNIFICANTLY INFLUENCED BY THE WORKS OF CERTAIN SCIENTISTS WHO DID NOT FORMALLY BELONG TO PH.D. SCHOOL, BUT IDEOLOGICALLY CLOSEST TO THE CONCEPT OF THE PRAGUE LINGUISTIC. CIRCLE - A. MARTINET, E. KURILOVICH, B. MALMBERG, A. SOMMERFELT. MEANS. F. RECEIVED DEVELOPMENT IN THE AMER. DESCRIPTIVE LINGUISTICS(WORKS BY L. BLOOMFIELD, E. SAPIRAND THEIR STUDENTS - M. SWADESHA AND W. TWODDELL). AN IMPORTANT ACHIEVEMENT OF AMER. F. (C. HOCKETT, G. GLIGON, B. BLOCK, J. TRAIGER, K. PIKE, ETC.) - DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD OF DISTRIBUTIVE ANALYSIS (SEE. DISTRIBUTION).

LIT .:N.S. TRUBETSKOY, FUNDAMENTALS OF PHONOLOGY, TRANS. WITH IT., M., I960; MARTINET A., PRINCIPLE OF ECONOMY IN PHONETIC CHANGES (PROBLEMS OF DIACHRONIC PHONOLOGY), TRANS. FROM FRENCH., M., 1960; ZINDER L.R., GENERAL PHONETICS, L., 1960; BERNSTEIN

SI, BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHONOLOGY, "QUESTIONS OF LINGUISTICS", 1962, NO. 5; JACOBSON R., HALLE M., PHONOLOGY AND ITS RELATION TO PHONETICS, IN COLLECTION: NEW IN LINGUISTICS, V. 2, M., 1962; BAUDOUIN DE COURTENAY A., SELECTED WORKS ON GENERAL LINGUISTICS, VOL. 1 - 2, M., 1963 THE MAIN DIRECTIONS OF STRUCTURALISM, M. 1964; PRAGUE LINGUISTIC CIRCLE SAT. ART., M., 1967; REFORMATSKIY A.A.FROM THE HISTORY OF RUSSIAN PHONOLOGY. ESSAY READER, M., 1970; SHCHERBA LV, LANGUAGE SYSTEM AND SPEECH ACTIVITY, L., 1974; MARTINET A., PHONOLOGY AS FUNCTIONAL PHONETICS, L., 1949; HOENIGSWALD H. M., LANGUAGE CHANGE AND LINGUISTIC RECONSTRUCTION, CHI., 1960; JAKOBSON R., SELECTED WRITINGS, V. 1, 'S-GRAVENHAGE, 1962; CHOMSKY N., HALLE M., THE SOUND PATTERN OF ENGLISH, N. Y. 1968; SEE ALSO LIT. AT ART. PHONEME, V.A.VINOGRADOV.

Phonetics - a section of linguistics in which the sound structure of the language is studied, i.e. sounds of speech, syllables, stress, intonation. There are three sides of speech sounds, and they correspond to three sections of phonetics:

Speech acoustics... She studies the physical signs of speech.

Anthropophonics or physiology of speech... She studies the biological signs of speech, i.e. work performed by a person when pronouncing (articulating) or perceiving speech sounds.

Phonology... She studies the sounds of speech as a means of communication, i.e. the function or role of sounds used in the language.

Phonology is often distinguished as a separate discipline from phonetics. In such cases, the first two sections of phonetics (in the broad sense) - speech acoustics and speech physiology are combined into phonetics (in the narrow sense), which is opposed to phonology.

Acoustics of speech sounds

Speech sounds - These are vibrations of the air caused by the organs of speech. Sounds are divided into tones (musical sounds) and noises (non-musical sounds).

Tone - These are periodic (rhythmic) vibrations of the vocal cords.

Noise - these are non-periodic (non-rhythmic) vibrations of a sounding body, for example, lips.

Speech sounds vary in pitch, strength, and duration.

Sound pitch is the number of vibrations per second (hertz). It depends on the length and tension of the vocal cords. Higher sounds have a shorter wavelength. A person can perceive the frequency of vibrations, i.e. pitch in the range of 16 to 20,000 hertz. One hertz is one oscillation per second. A person does not perceive sounds below this range (infrasounds) and above this range (ultrasounds), unlike many animals (cats and dogs perceive up to 40,000 Hz and above, and bats even up to 90,000 Hz).

The basic frequencies of human communication are usually in the range of 500 - 4000 Hz. The vocal cords produce sounds between 40 and 1700 Hz. For example, bass usually starts at 80 Hz and soprano is defined at 1300 Hz. The natural vibration frequency of the tympanic membrane is 1000 Hz. Therefore, the most pleasant sounds for a person - the noise of the sea, forests - have a frequency of about 1000 Hz.

The range of fluctuations in the sounds of a man's speech is 100-200 Hz, in contrast to women who speak with a frequency of 150-300 Hz (since men have 23 mm of vocal cords, and 18 mm for women, and the longer the ligaments, the lower the tone) ...

Sound power (loudness) depends on the wavelength, i.e. from the vibration amplitude (the amount of deviation from the initial position). The amplitude of the vibrations is created by the pressure of the air stream and the surface of the sounding body.

Sound power is measured in decibels. The whisper is defined in 20 - 30 dB, ordinary speech is from 40 to 60 dB, the loudness of the cry reaches 80 - 90 dB. Singers can sing with strengths up to 110 - 130 dB. In the Guinness Book of Records, a record is recorded for a fourteen-year-old girl who shouted an airliner taking off with an engine volume of 125 dB. At a sound strength above 130 dB, ear pain begins.

Different speech sounds have different strengths. The sound power depends on the resonator (resonator cavity). The smaller its volume, the more power. But, for example, in the word "saw" the vowel [and], being unstressed and having generally lower power, sounds several decibels stronger than the stressed [a]. The point is that higher sounds seem to be louder, and sound [u] is higher than [a]. Thus, sounds of the same strength but different pitch are perceived as sounds of different loudness. It should be noted that sound power and loudness are not the same, since loudness is the perception of sound intensity by a human hearing aid. Its unit of measurement is backgroundequal to decibel.

Sound duration, i.e. the oscillation time is measured in milliseconds.

The sound has a complex composition. It consists of a pitch and overtones (resonator tones).

Main tone is a tone generated by the vibrations of the entire physical body.

Overtone - a partial tone generated by vibrations of parts (half, quarter, eighth, etc.) of this body. The overtone ("upper tone") is always multiple times higher than the main tone, hence its name. For example, if the main tone is 30 Hz, then the first overtone will be 60, the second 90, the third 120 Hz, etc. It is caused by resonance, i.e. the sound of the body upon the perception of a sound wave having the same frequency as the vibration frequency of this body. Overtones are usually weak, but amplified by resonators. The intonation of speech is created by changing the frequency of the main tone, and timbre - by changing the frequency of overtones.

Timbre - this is a kind of color of sound created by overtones. It depends on the ratio of the main tone and overtones. Timbre allows you to distinguish one sound from another, to distinguish between the sounds of different faces, male or female speech. The timbre of each person is strictly individual and unique like a fingerprint. Sometimes this fact is used in forensic science.

Formant These are resonator-enhanced overtones that characterize a given sound. In contrast to the vocal tone, the formant is formed not in the larynx, but in the resonating cavity. Therefore, it persists even with a whisper. In other words, this is the band of concentration of sound frequencies, which receives the greatest amplification due to the influence of resonators. With the help of formants, we can quantitatively distinguish one sound from another. This role is played by speech formants - the most important in the vowel spectrum are the first two formants, which are closest in frequency to the fundamental tone. Moreover, each person's voice has its own voice formants. They are always higher than the first two formants.

The formant characterization of consonants is very complex and difficult to define, but vowels can be characterized with sufficient reliability using the first two formants, which correspond approximately to articulatory features (the first formant is the degree of elevation of the language, and the second is the degree of advancement of the language). Below are tables illustrating the above. It should only be borne in mind that the given quantitative data are approximate, even conditional, since researchers give different data, but the ratios of vowels with a discrepancy in numbers remain approximately the same for all, i.e. the first formant, for example, for the vowel [and] will always be less than that for [a], and the second more.

Approximate frequencies of Russian vowels

This diagram clearly illustrates the correspondence of acoustic and articulatory signs of vowels: the first formant is the rise, the second is the row.

2500 2000 1500 1000 500

200 and at

400 ehs about

600

800 and

The frequency characteristics of sounds are movable, since the formants correlate with the fundamental lowest tone, and it is also changeable. In addition, in live speech, each sound can have several formant characteristics, since the beginning of a sound can differ from the middle and ending in formants. It is very difficult for the listener to identify the sounds extracted from the stream of speech.

Articulation of speech sounds

When communicating with the help of language, a person utters sounds and perceives them. For these purposes, he uses a speech apparatus, which consists of the following components:

organs of speech;

organs of hearing;

organs of vision.

Articulation of speech sounds is the work of the speech organs, which is necessary for the pronunciation of sound. The organs of speech themselves include:

the brain, which, through the motor center of speech (Broca's zone), sends certain impulses through the nervous system to the organs of pronunciation (articulation) of speech;

breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm and chest), which creates an air stream that provides the formation of sound vibrations necessary for articulation;

organs of speech (articulation) of speech, which are usually also called organs of speech (in the narrow sense).

Articulation organs are divided into active and passive. The active organs perform the movements necessary for the pronunciation of the sound, while the passive organs are the fulcrum for the active organ.

Passive organs - these are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, upper jaw.

cricoid cartilagelocated below other cartilage. It is narrower in front and wider behind;

thyroid cartilagelocated at the top in front (in men, it acts as an Adam's apple, or Adam's apple, because the two plates forming it make up an angle of 90 degrees, and in women - 110), closes the cricoid cartilage in front and on the sides;

paired arytenoid cartilage in the form of two triangles located behind the top. They can move apart and slide.

Organs of speech (pronunciation apparatus)



Russian and Latin names of organs of speech and their derivatives

Between the arytenoid and thyroid cartilage there are mucous folds, which are called vocal cords... They converge and diverge with the help of arytenoid cartilage, forming a glottis of various shapes. With non-verbal breathing and when pronouncing deaf sounds, they are spread apart and relaxed. In this case, the slot looks like a triangle.

A man speaks on exhalation, on inhalation only donkeys shout: "ua". Inhalation is also used when yawning.

People with an amputated larynx can also speak in a so-called esophageal voice, using the muscle folds in the esophagus as the larynx.

For the formation of sound, the oral (supraglottic) cavity is of great importance, in which noises and resonator tones are formed, which are important for creating a timbre. The size and shape of the mouth and nose play an important role.

The tongue is a movable organ that performs two speech functions:

depending on its position, it changes the shape and volume of the resonator;

creates obstacles when pronouncing consonants.

The lips and tongue also serve as a barrier.

The soft palate in the raised position locks the entrance to the nasal cavity, while the sounds will not have a nasal sound. If the soft palate is lowered, then the air stream freely passes through the nose, and as a result, nasal resonance occurs, which is characteristic of nasal vowels, sonants and consonants.

Classification of speech sounds

There are usually about 50 speech sounds in each language. They are divided into vowels, consisting of tone, and consonants, formed by noise (or noise + tone). When pronouncing vowels, the air passes freely without obstacles, and when articulating consonants, there is always some obstacle and a certain place of formation - a focus. The set of vowels in the language is called vocalism, and the set of consonants is called consonantism. As their name implies, vowels are formed with the help of a voice, i.e. they are always sonorous.

Vowel classification

Vowels are classified according to the following main articulation characteristics:

1. Row, i.e. depending on which part of the tongue rises during pronunciation. When raising the front of the tongue, front vowels (u, e), middle - average (s), back - rear vowels (oh, y).

2. Rise, i.e. depending on how high the back of the tongue is raised, forming resonator cavities of various volumes. Vowels differ open, or, in other words, broad (a) and closed, i.e narrow (u, y).

In some languages, for example, in it. and French, sounds similar in articulation differ only in a slight difference in the rise of the tongue.

3. Labialization those. depending on whether the articulation of sounds is accompanied by a rounding of the lips extended forward or not.

A distinction is made between rounded (labial, labialized) vowels, for example, [⊃], [υ], and uncorrupted vowels, for example, [i], [ε].

4. Nasalization those. depending on whether the palatine curtain is lowered, allowing a stream of air to pass through the mouth and nose simultaneously, or not. Nasal (nasalized) vowels, eg, [õ], [ã], are pronounced with a special “nasal” timbre. Vowels in most languages \u200b\u200bare non-nasal (formed when the palatine curtain is raised, blocking the air stream through the nose), but in some languages \u200b\u200b(French, Polish, Portuguese, Old Church Slavonic), nasal vowels are widely used along with non-nasal vowels.

5. Longitude. In a number of languages \u200b\u200b(English, German, Lat., Ancient Greek, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish), with the same or similar articulation, vowels form pairs, the members of which are opposed by the duration of pronunciation, i.e. differ, for example, short vowels: [a], [i], [⊃], [υ] and long vowels: [a:], [i:], [⊃:],.

In Latin and Ancient Greek, this phenomenon is used in versification: various poetic sizes (hexameter, dactyl) are based on the ratio of long and short syllables, which correspond to modern poetic sizes, based on dynamic stress.

This is clearly seen in the first words of Virgil's poem "Aeneid", written in dactyl (six-foot hexameter):

Arma vir umque cano (long syllables highlighted)

Arma v irumque c ano (dynamic accents are highlighted)

6. Diphthongization

In many languages, vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs... Monophthong is an articulatory and acoustically homogeneous vowel.

Diphthong is a complex vowel sound consisting of two sounds pronounced in one syllable. This is a special speech sound in which articulation begins differently than it ends. One element of a diphthong is always stronger than the other. Diphthongs are of two types - downstream and ascending.

In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong and the second is weaker. Such diphthongs are characteristic of English. and it. language: time, Zeit.

In an ascending diphthong, the first element is weaker than the second. These diphthongs are typical for French, Spanish and Italian: pied, bueno, chiaro.

For example, in proper names such as Pierre, Puerto Rico, Bianca.

In Russian. lang. no diphthongs. The combination "vowel + y" in the words "paradise", "tram" cannot be considered diphthongs, since when declining this quasidiphthong breaks into two syllables, which is impossible for a diphthong: "tram, ra-yu". But in Russian. lang. meet diphthongoids.

A diphthongoid is a stressed non-uniform vowel that has at the beginning or end the overtones of another vowel, articulatory close to the main, stressed. Diphthongoids are found in Russian: the house is pronounced "DuoOOM".

Consonant classification

There are 4 main consonant articulations.

Sonants in which the voice prevails over noise (m, n, l, p).

Noisy voiced. The noise prevails over the voice (b, c, e, h, g).

Noisy deaf, which are pronounced without a voice (n, f, t, s, w).

2. Method of articulation

The essence of this method is in the nature of overcoming the obstacle.

Smychny consonants are formed by a bow that forms a barrier to the air stream. They are classified into three groups:

explosive... For them, the bow ends with an explosion (n, b, t, d, k, d);

affricates... In them, the bow goes into a slit without an explosion (c, h);

occlusive nasal, in which the bow does not explode (m, n).

Slotted consonants are formed by friction of a stream of air passing through a passage narrowed by an obstacle. They are also called fricatives (Latin " frico"- true) or spirants (Latin" spiro»- blow): (v, f, s, w, x);

Bow-slotted, which include the following sonants:

lateral (l) in which the bow and cleft are preserved (the side of the tongue is lowered);

trembling (p), with the alternating presence of a bow and a gap.

3. Active organ

According to the active organ, the consonants are divided into three groups:

Labial two types:

labial (bilabial) (n, b, m)

labiodental (v, f)

Lingual consonants, which are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and posterior-lingual;

front-lingual divided by (by the position of the tip of the tongue):

dorsal (latin dorsum - back): the front part of the back of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and the front palate (s, d, c, n);

apical (lat. arech - top, tip), alveolar: the tip of the tongue approaches the upper teeth and alveoli (l, eng. [d]);

cacuminous (lat. cacumen - top), or bifocal, during articulation of which the tip of the tongue is bent upward (w, w, h) to the anterior palate, and the posterior back is raised to the soft palate, i.e. there are two foci of noise generation.

although at middle-language consonants, the middle part of the language approaches the hard palate, they are perceived as soft (s); this phenomenon is also called palatalization;

back-lingual consonants include (k, h). Lingual are divided into three groups:

reed (uvular), eg French [r];

pharyngeal (pharyngeal) - Ukrainian (g), German [h];

guttural: as separate sounds, they are available in Arabic.

4. Passive organ

By passive organ, i.e. the place of articulation, there are dental (dental), alveolar, palatal and velar. When the back of the tongue comes closer to the hard palate, soft sounds are formed (y, eh, th, sm, etc., i.e. palatal). Velar sounds (k, g) are formed by the convergence of the tongue with the soft palate, which gives the consonant hardness.

Syllable

Syllable - the minimum unit of pronunciation of speech sounds, into which you can divide your speech with pauses. The word in speech is not divided into sounds, but into syllables. In speech, it is the syllables that are recognized and pronounced. Therefore, with the development of writing among all peoples in the alphabets, syllabic signs first appeared, and only then letters reflecting individual sounds.

The division into syllables is based on the difference in sounds in sonority. A sound that is more sonorous than neighboring sounds is called syllable and forms a syllable.

A syllable usually has a top (core) and a periphery. As a kernel, i.e. The syllable sound, as a rule, is a vowel, and the periphery consists of a non-syllable (non-syllable) sound or several such sounds, which are usually represented by consonants. But a syllable can consist of only one vowel without a periphery, for example. diphthong in eng. pronouns I "I" or two or more vowels (Italian. vuoi). Peripheral vowels are non-syllable.

But syllables may not have a vowel, for example, in the patronymic Ivanovna or in the interjections "ks-ks", "tsss". Consonants can be syllabic if they are sonants or are between two consonants. Such syllables are very common in the Czech language: prst "Finger" (cf. Old Russian. finger), trh "Market" (cf. Russian. bargain), vlk "wolf", srdce, srbsky, Trnka (famous Czech linguist). In a sentence Vlk prchl skrz tvrz (the wolf ran through the fortress) there is not a single vowel. But in examples from the Czech language it is clear that the syllabic consonant is always sonorous.

The division into syllables is explained by different theories that complement each other.

Sonor theory: in a syllable, the most sonorous sound is syllabic. Therefore, in order of decreasing sonority, syllabic sounds most often include vowels, sonorous voiced consonants, noisy voiced consonants and sometimes voiceless consonants (shh).

Dynamic theory: syllabic sound is the strongest, most intense.

Expiratory theory: a syllable is created by one moment of exhalation, a push of exhaled air. How many syllables are in a word, so many times the flame of a candle will tremble when pronouncing the word. But quite often the flame behaves contrary to the laws of this theory (for example, with a two-syllable "ay" it will tremble once).

Types of syllables

Open syllable is a syllable ending with a vowel sound, for example, yes, ay.

Closed syllable is a syllable ending with a consonant sound, for example, hell, mind, cat.

Veiled syllable starts with a consonant, e.g. glad pop.

Uncovered syllable starts with a vowel sound: ah, he, ah, already.

In Russian, there are mostly open syllables, and in Japanese, almost all are open (Fu-ji-ya-ma, i-ke-ba-na, sa-mu-rai, ha-ra-ki-ri).

There are also cases of extremely closed and hidden syllables, for example, splash, Eng. and fr. strict (strict), it. sprichst (you say), Georgian - msxverpl (victim).

There are languages \u200b\u200bwhere the roots and syllables are the same. Such languages \u200b\u200bare called monosyllabic, for example. whale. lang. - typical monosyllabic.

It is often very difficult in speech to determine the boundary of a syllable.

Rus. They were led by the arm - the friends were taken away. They beat the viper - they killed the vipers. The palette is half a liter.

English. an ocean - a notion; an aim - a name.

Super-segmented language units

Sound units of the language can be segmented (linear) and super-segmented.

Segment units - these are sounds (phonemes), syllables, words, etc. Longer language units are divided into shorter segments.

Super segment units, or otherwise prosodic (from the Greek. prosodia - chorus, stress) are layered on a chain of segments - syllables, words, phrases, sentences. Typical super-segment units are stress and intonation.

Tact - a group of words united by one stress and separated from each other by a pause.

Proclitic - an unstressed syllable before a stressed one, for example, i d atsmall.

Enclitic - unstressed syllable after stressed, for example, zn andyu i .

Unstressed words - articles, prepositions, particles - often act as enclitics. Sometimes they pull the stress on themselves: "n aboutd hand ".

Thus, the boundaries of word and measure may not coincide.

Stress

Stress (accent) is the selection of a sound, syllable, word, group of words.

The three main types of stress are force, quantitative and musical.

Power (dynamic) stress is associated with the amplitude of the vibration of the sound wave, the larger the amplitude, the stronger the sound is pronounced.

Quantitative (quantitative) stress is associated with the duration, length of the sound, the stressed syllable has a longer duration than unstressed syllables.

Musical (polytonic) stress is associated with the relative pitch, with a change in this pitch.

Usually in languages \u200b\u200bthat have stress, all three stresses are intertwined, but one of them prevails and the main type of stress in one language or another is determined by it.

In Russian, force stress, being the main one, is accompanied by the length of the stressed syllable.

Intonation

All prosodic phenomena are called intonation in syntactic units - phrases and words.

Intonation consists of the following 5 elements, the first two of which are the main components of intonation:

melody of speech (movement of the voice in pitch);

stress;

pause;

rate of speech;

timbre of voice.

Modifications of sounds in the stream of speech

Combinatorial... Depending on the proximity of other sounds.

Positional changes... Associated with the position in the unstressed syllable, at the end of a word, etc.

1. Combinatorial sound variation

A. Accommodation

Accommodation is the adaptation of consonant articulation under the influence of vowels and vowels under the influence of consonants.

There are two types of accommodation - progressive and regressive.

Guided tour - the beginning of articulation. Recursion is the end of articulation.

Progressive accommodation - recursion of the previous sound affects the excursion of the next one. For example, in Russian the vowels "a", "o", "y" after soft consonants are more advanced (mat - mint, they say - chalk, bow - hatch).

Regressive accommodation - the recursion of the previous sound is affected by the excursion of the next one. For example, in Russian, a vowel in the vicinity of "m" or "n" is nasalized (in the word "house" the articulation "m" is anticipated by the nasalization of the vowel "o", and in the word "brother" "t" is pronounced with a rounding before "y ").

B. Assimilation and its types.

1. Consonant and vocal assimilation

Consonant assimilation - likening a consonant to a consonant, for example. in the word "boat" the voiced consonant "d" is replaced by a voiceless "t" - ("tray").

Vocal assimilation - assimilation of a vowel to a vowel, for example, instead of “happens” in common parlance, it is often said “byvat”.

2. Progressive and regressive assimilation

Progressive assimilation - the previous sound affects the next one. In Russian. lang. progressive assimilation is very rare, for example, dialectal pronunciation of the word "Vanka" as "Vanka". Progressive assimilation is often found in English. ( cats, balls), French - subsister, ger., bash. (at + lar \u003d attar) and other languages.

Regressive assimilation - the subsequent sound affects the previous one. It is most typical for the Russian language "boat [tray]", vodka [votka], "got up at three [fstal f three]"

In eng. " newspaper»[Z] under the influence of [р] turns into [s], into fr. absolu [b] - in [p], it. Staub ends with [p].

In bash. "Kitep bar" ( goes away) goes to "kitebbara".

3. Complete and incomplete assimilation

An example of complete assimilation is the word "assimilation" itself [ ad (k) + simil (similar, same) + atio (suffix) \u003d assimilatio)]. A similar example of assimilation is "agglutination" [ ad + glutin (glue) + atio = agglutinatio].

Rus. sew [shshyt], higher (higher), eng. cupboard “Wardrobe”, “buffet” is pronounced [´k∧bed]. Him. Zimber passed into Zimmer "room", selbst "Myself" is pronounced.

In case of incomplete assimilation, the sound loses only part of its features, for example, "where - where", "gray - here", where the consonants lose the sign of voicedness.

4. Distance and contact assimilation

Distant assimilation... One sound affects the other at a distance, although they are separated from each other by other sounds.

Rus. bully - hooligan (vernacular), eng. foot "leg" - feet "legs", goose "Goose" - geese "Geese". In Old English. lang. fori (plural from fot "leg"), " i”Changed the vowel of the root, and then dropped. It's the same in him. language: Fuss "leg"- Fusse "legs", Gans "goose"- Gänse "Geese".

In contact assimilation, the interacting sounds are in direct contact.

Singharmonism

Singharmonicity (vowel harmony) - distant progressive assimilation along the row and labialization. Vowels of suffixes and usually non-first syllables of a word are likened by row or by roundness (front vowels - front vowels, back vowels - back vowels), i.e. for example, in a simple word there can be only the vowels "and", "e" or only "y", "o".

This phenomenon is characteristic, for example, of the languages \u200b\u200bof the Turkic family of languages \u200b\u200b(Turkish, Bashkir, Tatar, Uzbek and others), the Finno-Ugric languages \u200b\u200b(Hungarian, Finnish and others), as well as one of the most ancient languages \u200b\u200b- Sumerian.

For example, ball (child) + lar (plural ending) \u003d balalar... Here are all the back vowels: vowel [a] in bash. lang. closer to the back row.

But for the word "keshe" (person) the ending will not be "lar", but "ler" - kesheler. Letter eh denotes a front vowel [ae].

More examples: Hung. levelemben "In my letter" Magyarorszagon "in Hungary", köszönöm "Thank you" (singharmonicity for labialization), Fin. talossa - "in the house" tour. evlerinde "In their house." Traces of syngharmonicity are clearly visible in the Russian borrowed from the Turkic languages. words drum, chipmunk, pencil, cockroach and etc.

Singharmonicity emphasizes the unity of the word, but leads to some phonetic uniformity of words.

Dissimilation

This phenomenon is the opposite of assimilation. Represents the articulation of the articulation of two identical or similar sounds.

February passed into february (cf. eng. February, it. Februar, fr. fevrier), corridor - colidor (in common parlance), fr. couroir - couloir (Russian couloir), velblyud - camel - examples of distant dissimilation.

Contact dissimilation is observed in words easy [lehko], boring [boring].

Metathesis

Metathesis (gr. permutation) - mutual permutation of sounds or syllables within a word.

Word marmore (gr. μαρμαρος) changed into Russian. marble, thalerka (it. Teller or Swedish talrik) - plate, dolon became palm, creator - cheesecake, jail - rigging, neuro (-pathologist) - nerve. English. thridda - third (third), germ. brennen passed into eng. burn, bridd - to bird (bird).

Him. Brennstein - Bernstein, fr. formaticu - fromage.

For example, the President of the USSR Gorbachev always pronounced Arzebazhan instead of Azerbaijan - it was more convenient for him.

Haplology

Haplology (Greek ´απλοος [ haplos] - simple) - simplification of the word due to dissimilation, in which the same or similar syllables are lost. For example, miner lologia - mineralogy, cor nenosyy - snub-nosed, bl zozorky - myopic, tragic cocomedia - tragicomedy, STI pependia - scholarship... But in the very word gap lologuia - haplology (* haplogy) no.

Eng. miners "rights instead miners "s rights (if the same sounding formants of the plural and the possessive case coincide, the last formant disappears).

2. Positional changes

A. Reduction

Change (weakening) of consonants and vowels in quality and quantity (longitude), depending on the place in the word, being in unstressed syllables, etc.

Rus. d aboutm - house and - houses aboutdstvo. In unstressed syllables, "o" is reduced. The reduction can be complete: Vanya - Van, Ivanovich - Ivanovich, Ivanovna - Ivanna.

Eng. nama - name (the second vowel was first partially reduced, and then completely, preserved in spelling). Good morning - g "morning - morning.

Apocope - sound dropout at the end of a word: to - to.

Syncope - the sound falls off not at the end of the word: Ivanovich - Ivanych.

B. Stun

Loss of voicing occurs in many languages. This is usually due to the premature return of the vocal cords to a state of rest, for example, Russian. meadows - meadow [bow], pipe - pipes [dead body].

Prosthesis - the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word, for example, Russian. eight - eight, mustache (-town) - caterpillar, patrimony - patrimony, isp. - estudiante from lat. studens, estrella from Stella (star), bash. ystakan, yyshtan (glass, pants), Hung. asztal (table).

Epenthesis - the appearance of a sound in the middle of a word, for example. Russian Italy [Italia] from Italia, John - Ivan, in common parlance - kakava, rubel, shpiyon, bash. and tat. pronunciation of "x", "act" as [ikys], [akyt].

Epithesis - the appearance of a sound at the end of a word: rus. song - song.

Substitution... Replacing the sound of a foreign language with the sound of a native language, for example, German. Herzog - the duke, Hitler - Hitler (sound corresponding to him. " h"Not in Russian), eng. meeting - rally (sound " ng»[Η] is absent in Russian), instead of fr. the sound represented by the letter u (tu, pure) and it. ü in Russian lang. written and pronounced [yu].

Diareza (Greek. misalignment). Sound omission: rus. with lnce, ser dtse, san tny, wait tlively; bash. ultyr (sit down) - utyr.

Elision... The loss of a final vowel before the preceding vowel. This phenomenon is especially characteristic of Romance languages, for example, fr. l "arbre (article le + arbre), D "Artagnan - de Artagnan, D" Arc - de Arc), bash. nor ashley - nishley.

Phonology

Phonology studies the social, functional side of speech sounds. Sounds are viewed not as a physical (acoustics), not as a biological (articulation) phenomenon, but as a means of communication and as an element of the language system.

Phoneme

The basic concept in phonology is phoneme... The term "phoneme" was introduced into linguistics by the great Russian-Polish linguist, a descendant of the French noblemen Ivan (Jan) Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay (1845 - 1929), the founder of the Kazan school of linguistics. He considered the phoneme a psychic version of the sounds of the language.

Phoneme is a sound type, a generalized, ideal idea of \u200b\u200bsound. The phoneme cannot be pronounced, only shades of phonemes are pronounced. The phoneme is the general, the actually pronounced sound is the particular.

In speech, sounds undergo various changes. There are a huge number of physical sounds that make up speech. How many people, so many sounds, for example, [a] can be pronounced differently in height, strength, duration, timbre, but all the various millions of sounds [a] are denoted by one letter, reflecting one sound type, one phoneme. Of course, phonemes and letters of the alphabet often do not coincide, but a parallel can be drawn between them. The number of both is strictly limited, and in some languages \u200b\u200balmost the same. A phoneme can be roughly described as a letter of a sound alphabet. If in the stream of speech of thousands of different sounds it is possible to distinguish different words, then only thanks to the phonemes.

Consequently, a phoneme is the minimum sound unit of a language system that allows one to distinguish between words and the meaning of words.

In the word "milk" one phoneme / o / is represented by three positional variants - stressed and two unstressed.

Thus, a phoneme is an abstraction, type, model of sound, and not the sound itself. Therefore, the concepts of "phoneme" and "sound of speech" do not coincide.

In a word " boy»Two phonemes, not three, since it differs from words by, be, bee, bar etc.

It is also possible that two phonemes sound like one sound. For example, in the word "children's" / t / and / s / sound like one sound [ts], and in the word "sew" / s / and / w / sound like a long [w].

Each phoneme is a set of essential features that distinguish it from other phonemes. For example, / t / is voiceless as opposed to voiced / d /, front-lingual as opposed to / n /, explosive as opposed to / s /, etc.

The signs by which a phoneme differs from others are called differential (distinctive) features.

For example, in Russian. lang. the word "there" can be pronounced with a short [a] and a long [a:], but this will not change the meaning of the word. Therefore, in the Russian language these are not two phonemes, but two variants of one phoneme. But in English. and it. lang. phonemes also differ in longitude (eng. bit and bee, it. Bann and Bahn). In Russian. lang. the sign of nasalization cannot be a differential sign, since all Russian vowel phonemes are non-nasal.

Common features that cannot be used to differentiate phonemes are called integral features... For example, the sign of voicedness in [b] is not a distinctive (differential), but an integral sign in relation to [x]. The phoneme is realized as one of the possible variants. These phonetic variants of the phoneme are called allophones... Sometimes the terms “ shade"(Russian linguist Lev Shcherba) or" divergent"(Baudouin de Courtenay).

Strong position Phonemes are positions where phonemes clearly reveal their properties: catfish myself.

Weak position is the position of phoneme neutralization, where phonemes do not perform distinctive functions: from aboutma, s andma; n aboutha, n andha; ro to, ro r; ro t, ro d .

Phoneme neutralization - this is the coincidence of different phonemes in one allophone.

One and the same phoneme can change its sound, but only within the limits that do not affect its distinctive features. No matter how much birches differ from each other, they cannot be confused with oak.

Phonetic variants of phonemes are mandatory for all native speakers. If a man utters a sound in a low voice and at the same time lisps, and a girl in a high voice and at the same time lisps, then these sounds will not be phonetic, obligatory variants of phonemes. This is random, individual, speech, not linguistic variation.

Distribution

To identify the phonemes of a particular language, you need to know in what positions they occur. Distribution - the distribution of phonemes by pronunciation positions.

1. Contrast distribution

Two sounds meet in the same environment and distinguish between words. In this case, they are representatives of different phonemes.

For example, from a series of words "volume, house, lump, scrap, rum, catfish" it is clear that in Russian. lang. there are phonemes / t /, / d /, / k /, / l /, / m /, / s /, since in the same environment [ ohm] they allow you to distinguish between different words.

2. Additional distribution

Two sounds never meet in the same environment, and the meaning of words is not distinguished.

They are variants, allophones of the same phoneme.

For example, the vowel phoneme / e / in Russian can have different allophones depending on the different environment.

In the word "seven" [e] appears as the most closed allophone (after the soft and before the soft consonant) y

In the word "sat" [e] appears as a less closed allophone (after a soft and before a hard consonant).

In the word "six" [e] appears as a more open allophone (after a hard consonant and before a soft consonant).

In the word "pole" [e] appears as the most open allophone (after a solid consonant and before a solid consonant).

In Russian, [s] is considered a variant of the phoneme / and / in position after solid consonants. For example, be - beat... Therefore, despite the visually identical environment, here we have different environments [bit´] - [b´it´]

In Japanese, the phoneme / r / is pronounced as an average between [p] and [l] and these sounds are allophones of the same phoneme.

3. Free variation (alternation)

Sounds are found in the same environments and do not distinguish between words and meanings. These are variants of the same language unit.

For example, in fr. lang. there are two variants / r / - front-lingual (vibrating) as in Russian and uvular (grazing). The last option is normative, but the first is quite acceptable. In Russian, both options are equal - "land" and "land".

Phonological schools. Phonology of Trubetskoy

On the issue of neutralizing phonemes in words like "meadow", there are different points of view regarding the phoneme denoted by the letter "g", but reflecting a voiceless sound [k].

Linguists related to leningrad school (Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba et al.) Believe that in the pair "meadow - meadows" the sounds [k] and [r] refer to two different phonemes / k / and / r /.

However, linguists moscow school (Avanesov, Reformatsky, etc.) proceeding from the morphological principle, it is believed that in the word "meadow" the sound [k] is a variant of the phoneme / r /. They also believe that for the variants [k] and [r] in the words "lug-luga" there is a common phoneme / k / g/, which they called a hyperphoneme.

Hyperphoneme combines in itself all the signs of sounds [k] and [g] - velarity, explosiveness, deafness, voicedness, etc. The same hyperphoneme / a / o/ is present in the unstressed first vowels in the words "b andwounds "," m aboutl aboutto ".

The outstanding Russian linguist Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy (1890-1938), one of the theorists of the Prague Linguistic Circle (scientific school), into which he emigrated after the 1917 revolution, believed that in this case there was a special phoneme, which he called the archiphoneme.

Archiphoneme - this is a set of common features of neutralizing phonemes.

For example, archiphoneme / k / g/ combines the common features of the neutralizing phonemes / k / and / r / without voicing separating them.

If an archiphoneme is a unit with an incomplete set of signs, then a hyperphoneme is a double or even triple set of signs. In his classic work "Fundamentals of Phonology" N.S. Trubetskoy also gave a classification of phonological oppositions, i.e. oppositions of phonemes in order to identify similarities and differences.

1. Privative oppositions

Privative (lat. privo - deprive) oppositions are distinguished by the presence or absence of any sign in a pair of phonemes, for example, in one of the members of the pair b / n no voicing, while the other has.

2. Gradual oppositions

Gradual (lat. gradus - degree) of the opposition are distinguished according to the varying degrees of the attribute that the members of the opposition have.

For example, / e / and / and / in Russian. lang. in particular, they differ in different degrees of lifting of the tongue during articulation.

In English. the opposition involves three vowels with varying degrees of openness: / i /, / e /, / ae /.

3. Equipolent oppositions

All members of the opposition are equal; their signs are so heterogeneous that there is no basis for contrasting signs.

E.g. consonants / b /, / d /, / g / are articulated in completely different ways: one is labial, the other is front-lingual, the third is back-lingual, and they are united only by the fact that they are consonants.

Phoneme systems

Each language has its own system of phonemes (phonological system).

Phonological systems differ from each other:

The number of phonemes.

The ratio of vowel and consonant phonemes.

Phonological oppositions.

In different languages, there are phonemic groups (phonological oppositions) inherent in their systems of organization.

For example, in Russian. lang. phonemic opposition of hard and soft consonants., in French - nasal and non-nasal consonants, in eng. and it. languages \u200b\u200b- long and short vowels.

Correlation of vowels and consonant phonemes in some languages

Language Number of phonemes Number of vowels Number of consonants

Russian 43 6 37

English 44 12 + 8 differential 24

German 42 15 + 3 differential. 24

French 35 15 20

Bashkir 35 9 26

Tatar 34 9 25

Spanish 44 5 + 14 differential; 4 trif. 21

Italian 32 7 24

Finnish 21 8 13

Abkhazian 68 2 (a, s) + 8 differential. 58

Ubykhsky (Turkey) 82 2 (a, s) 80

Quechua (Peru) 31 3 (a, u, y) 28

Hawaiian 13 5 8

Tahitian 14 6 8

Rotokas (Papua) 11 5 6 (g, k, p, r, t, v)

In some works, you can find numbers that differ from those given below, since researchers proceed from different criteria for determining and counting phonemes (for example, they include borrowed phonemes or exclude diphthongs, etc.).

If we take into account the implementation of phonemes in speech (all phonetic variants), then the ratio of vowels and consonants in each language will be different than in the table, for example, in English. 38% - 62%, in it. lang. 36% - 64%, in French 44% - 56%.

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) consider these two disciplines as non-overlapping branches of linguistics.

The difference between phonology and phonetics lies in the fact that the subject of phonetics is not reduced to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics).

The creator of modern phonology is considered to be a scientist of Polish origin, Ivan (Jan) Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, who also worked in Russia. An outstanding contribution to the development of phonology was also made by Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle.

The most important concepts of phonology

Phonemes, allophones and oppositions

The basic concept of phonology is phoneme, the minimal linguistic unit, which has, first of all, a sense-distinguishing function. The manifestation of a phoneme in speech is a background, a specific segment of a sounding speech that has certain acoustic properties. The number of backgrounds is potentially infinite, but in each language they are distributed over different phonemes, depending on the structure of each phonological set. Backgrounds belonging to the same phoneme are called allophones.

The concept also plays a key role in phonology oppositions (opposition). Two units are considered opposed if there are so-called minimum pairs, that is, pairs of words that do not differ in anything except these two units (for example, in Russian: tom - house - lump - rum - som - nom - scrap). If two given backgrounds enter into such opposition, they refer to different phonemes. In contrast, if the two backgrounds are in complementary distribution, that is, they do not occur in the same context - this is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for attributing them to the same phoneme. So, in Russian they never occur in the same context [a] (as in the word mat) and [â] (as in the word crush): the first sound is pronounced only between hard consonants (and / or vowels), the second - only between two soft consonants. Thus, they can refer to the same phoneme (provided other necessary conditions are met). In contrast, in German, similar sounds are the only word differentiators: Ähre - [’ὲ: rә] ( ear) and Ehre - [’é: rә] ( honor), and therefore they belong to different phonemes.

Distinctive features

Each corresponding member. any opposition differs from another due to different phonological features. So, the initial sound of the word house different from the initial sound of the word tom the fact that a voice participates in its formation, that is, it is sonorous. Likewise the last sound of a word moss different from the last sound of the word mok (from get wet) in that the first is slotted and the second is explosive. All linguistic oppositions can be represented in this way: of course, there are also oppositions whose members differ in more than one feature: cf. about atate - about hate .

The signs by which the backgrounds of different phonemes are opposed in a given language are called distinctive, or differential... The set of distinctive features depends on the structure of the phonological system of a given language. So, in English or Thai, the distinguishing feature is the presence of aspiration in consonants: the first sounds of English. pin and bin differ precisely in the presence or absence of aspiration. On the contrary, in Russian or Italian, aspiration is not a distinctive feature: if you pronounce the Russian word drank aspirated after the first consonant, its meaning will not change. On the contrary, in Russian or Irish, hard (non-palatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants are opposed, cf. russian ox - led... In contrast, in English, velarized and unrelarized [l] are allophones: pill pronounced with the velarized [ɫ], and lip - with the usual [l] (the distribution depends on the position of the sound in the syllable).

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

For phonological typology, see more Vocal systems, Consonant systems

The tasks of phonology, in addition to private language descriptions, include the description of various systems of vowel and consonant phonemes. The structure of these systems is determined by the set and type of oppositions that form these systems, which, in turn, requires preliminary selection of a set of phonological features relevant for a given language and the assignment of these features to each phoneme: even for structurally and genetically close languages, sometimes different decisions need to be made. For example, in some dialects of the Irish language, voiceless aspirated and voiced non-aspirated consonants are contrasted, and the sign of deafness-voiced is meaningful, and aspiration is predictable. On the contrary, in other dialects, voicedness has no phonological meaning, automatically accompanying distinctive lack of breath. At the same time, it is essential that in both those and other dialects the fricatives are opposed in voicing-voicelessness; accordingly, the structure of the consonant system as a whole in these two groups of dialects is very different.

In the typology of vocal systems, a division into very rare linear (Abkhazian, aranda), rectangular and triangular systems is accepted. In triangular systems (typical, for example, for most European or Bantu languages), the most important paradigmatic relation is the ascent opposition, vowel phonemes are concentrated at the “extreme points” of the vocal triangle (central vowels are rare). In rectangular systems (often associated with the development of vowel harmony), the opposition of the row is very significant, but also the ascent, for such languages \u200b\u200balternations associated precisely with the row are very characteristic (such as, for example, the Turkic vowel harmony).

Universal phonological classifications

In the work of Trubetskoy, it was proposed, among other things, a calculus of distinctive features found in various vocal and consonant systems. However, he did not make a clear distinction between features associated with articulatory properties (for example, "place of formation") and acoustic features such as "opacity correlation" (roughly corresponding to vowel tension-relaxation). In the work of R.O. Yakobson, M. Halle and G. Fant, a universal classification of segments according to distinctive features associated with acoustic characteristics of the speech signal. Later, the universal phonological classification of Chomsky - Halle, proposed in the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle, based more on the articulatory signs of segments, became widespread. In some modern theories, the concept of a sign plays an even greater role than the concept of a phoneme itself; sometimes other units take the place of traditional signs, for example, an articulatory gesture. There are also such theories that consider segments not just as bundles, but as hierarchically organized sets of features, which makes it possible to limit the set of possible operations on segments.

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

"Fundamentals of Phonology" and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

Trubetskoy's criteria were very close to those distribution-based methods that were actively developed at that time in American descriptivism, in the works of Leonard Bloomfield, Morris Swadesh and others. Edward Sapir was partly close to the structuralists in his views. In particular, in the well-known work "Sound patterns in language", he emphasized that the linguistic significance of articulatory events is not due to their physical nature, but how they relate to other events in the system of a given language: for example, the sound produced when blowing out a candle, with acoustically similar to the sound found in several varieties of English in words which or white ([ʍ]), however, their linguistic significance is completely different.

In American structuralist phonology, the concept of two levels of representation was developed. These two levels were introduced to analyze facts like stunning final voiced voices in languages \u200b\u200bsuch as German or Russian. So, for Trubetskoy, the sound sequence was analyzed in phonological terms as / raT /, with an archiphoneme (a unit with an incomplete set of feature specifications) in the final position (where neutralization took place). Phonological representation / raT / at the same time correlates with two lexical units, orthographically Rad "wheel" and Rat "advice". In the procedural interpretation offered by American structuralists, these two units have different phonemic composition, respectively / rad / and / rat / (compare genitive forms Rates and Rades); a rule is postulated that translates / d / into / t / in the position of the end of a word. At the same time, in the early versions of American structuralism, the number of levels does not exceed two, even if this requires extremely nontrivial rules for the transition between them.

European schools of structuralism

The use of purely formal, distributive criteria was most widespread in the original concept of scientists working in Denmark, primarily L. Yelmslev, called glossmatics. In the field of the study of sound systems, Elmslev insisted, in particular, on the separation of substance (purely formal relations between linguistic units that create significance) and form (those signs of linguistic units that are related to the physical properties of their manifestations).

The original concept of the phonological structure of languages \u200b\u200bwas also proposed by the British researcher J.R. Furse and his London school of structuralism. In Foers's model, a significant role was played by the concept of prosody, understood as a unit that creates significance, covering more than one segment (background); thus, the role of classical phonemic analysis was diminished and at the same time a fairly simple analysis of such phenomena as, for example, assimilation was given.

The ideas of structuralism developed in the USSR, in particular, within the framework of the Moscow (R. I. Avanesov) and Leningrad (L. V. Shcherba) phonological schools.

Universal classifications and generative phonology

Significant advances in the development of instrumental phonetics have led to the fact that many generalizations regarding the sound structure of the world's languages \u200b\u200breceived a solid phonetic basis. The first significant work, where the goal of creating a universal classification of possible sounds in a natural language was set, was the book by R. O. Jacobson, Gunnar Fant and Morris Halle "Preliminary provisions of speech analysis". In this work, an attempt is made to present a universal classification of distinctive segments based on their acoustic correlates.

The development of generative phonology is usually associated with the work of Morris Halle "The Sound System of the Russian Language". Halle noted that many phenomena that are very similar from a phonetic point of view are described in very different ways within traditional phonological models. As an example, he cited assimilation by voicing (sandhi in Russian): in the traditional description, voicing in syntagma (corresponds to the spelling i would) can be described as an alternation of two phonemes (since / k / and / g / in Russian are undoubtedly different phonemes, cf. bark and mountain). At the same time, a completely analogous process of voicing in syntagma [ʒe dʒ bɨ] (would burn) is described in other terms (allophonic variation). Halle argued that the description in terms of the universal classification of sounds (according to which the feature of voicedness is distinctive for both / g / and / dʒ /) is more adequate to the real functioning of the language system.

The most significant contribution to the approval of generative phonology was made by the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle "The Sound Pattern of English" (SPE). It was the first to formulate the provisions that the grammar of a language (its phonological aspect) is a set of sounds / segments and rules for their transformation (phonological rules). The rules can be applied either arbitrarily or in a specific order. The concept of phoneme, allophone and syllable were excluded from the terminological arsenal. According to SPE principles, a segment undergoes transformation in a specific environment; the latter can be characterized as a segment with certain characteristics, or as a sequence of a certain number of segments. The system for representing phonological rules includes a set of differential features that have a "+/-" value. Only the most essential features are used in the rule representation formula. For example, the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian in the system of generative phonology rules is written as

Consonant-sonorous

In most cases, the order in which the rules are applied turns out to be a necessary condition for an adequate description of phonological transformations. Some rules can be applied several times (cyclically) at different stages of morpholonic derivation. So, the rule for deleting super-short (b, b) in Russian is applied every time morphemes containing these segments are added to the stem. The SPE provisions on cyclicity in the derivation process were further developed in the theory of lexical phonology (P. Kiparsky, G. E. Bui, E. Rubakh). Autosegmental phonology (J. Goldsmith) and the theory of geometry of features (J. Clements) became another direction in the development of generative phonology.

see also

Modern phonological theories

Leningrad phonological school

Our phonemes of speech perception turn out to be identical to the concept of phonemes developed by the Leningrad Phonological School (LFS). (Please allow me not to rename it St. Petersburg. It’s not at all out of a special love for Comrade VI Lenin, but because it was formed under this very name). The founder of this school, Academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, worked in the first half of the 20th century in St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad. He and his students were guided by the task of teaching foreign languages, setting the correct pronunciation. Most textbooks of foreign languages \u200b\u200bin their phonetic part use the concepts and terminology developed by Shcherba. The very phonological theory of Shcherba was best presented in his textbook "Phonetics of the French language". Later, these concepts were supported by researchers engaged in the instrumental study of sound speech and the design of automatic speech recognition systems.

Moscow phonological school

The concept of phonemes of speech production turns out to coincide with the phonological system according to the theory of the Moscow Phonological School (MFS). A striking representative of this school is Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky. The main works, in which the views of this direction are formulated, are devoted to the description of the native (Russian) language. Initially, each phonological school considered its constructions as the only correct teaching about the sound structure of language. With the passage of time, however, mainly in the depths of the Moscow school, the tendency of comprehensive discussion of problems and synthesis of phonological theories prevailed. The first attempt at such a synthesis was undertaken by one of the founders of the IDF Ruben Ivanovich Avanesov. He put forward the concept of "weak phonemes", which, along with "strong" ones, are part of linguistic signs. If the phoneme of speech perception is a set of indistinguishable sounds determined by the position in speech, the phoneme of speech production is a program for choosing one or another sound depending on the position, then Avanesov's weak phoneme is a set of differential features (those and only those) that must be indicated for defining the sound at this position. From the point of view of the structure of the linguistic mechanism, Avanesov's phonemes really occupy an intermediate position between the phonemes of speech production and speech perception. They are associated with commands to the executive organs of speech, developed programs for the implementation of signs in order to create one or another acoustic effect corresponding to the necessary phoneme of speech perception.

Prague phonological school

Another phonological theory, intermediate between the theories of LFS and MFS, was developed by the so-called Prague Phonological School (PFS), which arose in Prague simultaneously with MFS and LFS by the works of Russian linguists who emigrated from the revolution. It was this school that became most famous in the West, and its most prominent representative Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy is considered the founder and classic of world phonology. Similarly to Avanesov, Trubetskoy distinguishes two kinds of sound units in the composition of the word - phonemes and archiphonemes. Archiphonemes appear in cases when the conditions of the speech chain do not make it possible to recognize which particular phoneme of speech production was the basis for the appearance of a given sound. The concept of an archiphoneme essentially coincides with the concept of a weak phoneme by Avanesov. Another interpretation of the phenomenon of neutralizing differences in phonemes in the speech chain was given by the Moscow phonologist Pyotr Savich Kuznetsov in the concept of a hyperphoneme. A hyperphoneme is a set of all phonemes that a given sound can give. From the point of view of the structure of the linguistic mechanism, such a unit corresponds to the development of a system of hypotheses regarding the comparison of a chain of phonemes of speech perception perceived by hearing to one or another sign (word) represented in memory by a chain of phonemes of speech production.

American phonology

In the same years - at the beginning of the 20th century - the school of descriptive phonology developed in the United States, which solved the problem of describing the languages \u200b\u200bof the American Indians. Their concept was close to the views of the Leningrad phonological school.In particular, American dicriptivists most clearly formulated the procedure for dividing the speech stream into phonemes of speech perception. In the post-war years, under the influence of advances in computer technology, American linguists for the first time directly raised the issue of technical modeling of language ability. The pioneer of these works was also a native of Russia (or rather, from Poland) Naum Chomsky (Americans pronounce this name as Noum Chumski). His work founded the direction called generative linguistics. Its task was formulated as the task of constructing a formal model (automaton) for the production (generation) of correct statements in a specific language. The phonological part of the generative theory arose thanks to the works of another Russian, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, who emigrated from Prague (where he was a prominent member of the Prague School) to America in connection with the Second World War. Describing the generation (production) of speech, generative phonology naturally came to a concept close to the Moscow phonological school. True, it must be said that at first the generativists tried to interpret speech production too abstractly as the action of some kind of formal calculus, like algebra, which, incidentally, led to the emergence of the theory of formal languages \u200b\u200bwithin mathematics, which is already indirectly related to linguistics. The general scheme of phonetic speech production in generative phonology is that linguistic signs, through successive transformations according to linguistic rules, are transformed from an internal (deep) representation in the phonemes of speech production into a superficial representation by speech sound types. Taking the terminology of generativists, one can call the phonemes of speech production - deep phonemes, and the phonemes of speech perception - surface phonemes.

Notes

Phonetics and phonology

Basic concepts

Phonetics Speech sound Speech flow Segmentation Articulation apparatus Phonation Articulation Place of formation of consonants Formant Vowels Consonants Accent Tone Intonation Mohr's syllable IPA RLA Phonetic transcription Universal phonetic classifications

Phonology Phoneme Opposition Position Neutralization Differential sign Minimum pair Phonologization Allophone Phoneme variant Phoneme variation Archiphoneme Hyperphoneme Alternation Phonemic transcription

Personalities I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay N. S. Trubetskoy L. V. Shcherba L. R. Zinder M. I. Matusevich L. V. Bondarko V. B. Kasevich R. I. Avanesov V. N. Sidorov A. A . Reformed M. V. Panov R. O. Jacobson N. Chomsky M. Halle G. Fant

Phonological concepts Kazan linguistic school Phonological concept of N. S. Trubetskoy St. Petersburg phonological school Moscow phonological school Phonological concept R. I. Avanesov Phonological concept M. V. Panova Generative phonology

Sections and disciplines Articulatory phonetics Acoustic phonetics Perceptual phonetics Prosody Accentology Orthoepy Extranormal phonetics

Morphology Morphology Syntax Portal: Linguistics

Phonology languages \u200b\u200bof the world

esperanto () Finnish () Gujarati () Hawaiian () Hindi Urdu () Hungarian () Greek: Ancient Greek () / Koine () / Modern () Eskimo (

Most experts consider phonology (the study of the functional side of speech sounds) as a section (part) of phonetics (the study of the sounds of speech); some (among them, in particular, such prominent phonologists as N. Trubetskoy and S. K. Shaumyan) regard these two disciplines as non-intersecting branches of linguistics.

The difference between phonology and phonetics lies in the fact that the subject of phonetics is not reduced to the functional aspect of speech sounds, but also covers its substantial aspect, namely: physical and biological (physiological) aspects: articulation, acoustic properties of sounds, their perception by the listener ( perceptual phonetics).

The creator of modern phonology is considered to be a scientist of Polish origin, Ivan (Jan) Alexandrovich Baudouin de Courtenay, who also worked in Russia. An outstanding contribution to the development of phonology was also made by Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy, Roman Osipovich Yakobson, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Avram Noam Chomsky, Morris Halle.

The most important concepts of phonology

Phonemes, allophones and oppositions

The basic concept of phonology is phoneme, the minimal linguistic unit, which has, first of all, a sense-distinguishing function. The manifestation of a phoneme in speech is a background, a specific segment of a sounding speech that has certain acoustic properties. The number of backgrounds is potentially infinite, but in each language they are distributed over different phonemes, depending on the structure of each phonological set. Backgrounds belonging to the same phoneme are called allophones.

The concept also plays a key role in phonology oppositions (opposition). Two units are considered opposed if there are so-called minimum pairs, that is, pairs of words that do not differ in anything except these two units (for example, in Russian: tom - house - lump - rum - som - nom - scrap). If two given backgrounds enter into such opposition, they refer to different phonemes. In contrast, if the two backgrounds are in complementary distribution, that is, they do not occur in the same context - this is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for attributing them to the same phoneme. So, in Russian they never occur in the same context [a] (as in the word mat) and [â] (as in the word crush): the first sound is pronounced only between hard consonants (and / or vowels), the second - only between two soft consonants. Thus, they can refer to the same phoneme (provided other necessary conditions are met). In contrast, in German, similar sounds are the only word differentiators: Ähre - [’ὲ: rә] ( ear) and Ehre - [’é: rә] ( honor), and therefore they belong to different phonemes.

Distinctive features

Each member of any opposition differs from the other due to different phonological features. So, the initial sound of the word house different from the initial sound of the word tom the fact that a voice participates in its formation, that is, it is sonorous. Likewise the last sound of a word moss different from the last sound of the word mok (from get wet) in that the first is slotted and the second is explosive. All linguistic oppositions can be represented in this way: of course, there are also oppositions whose members differ in more than one feature: cf. about atate -about hate .

The signs by which the backgrounds of different phonemes are opposed in a given language are called distinctive, or differential... The set of distinctive features depends on the structure of the phonological system of a given language. So, in English or Thai, the distinguishing feature is the presence of aspiration in consonants: the first sounds of English. pin and bin differ precisely in the presence or absence of aspiration. On the contrary, in Russian or Italian, aspiration is not a distinctive feature: if you pronounce the Russian word drank aspirated after the first consonant, its meaning will not change. In Russian or Irish, hard (non-palatalized) and soft (palatalized) consonants are opposed, cf. russian ox - led... In contrast, in English, velarized and unrelarized [l] are allophones: pill pronounced with velarized [ɫ], and lip - with the usual [l] (the distribution depends on the position of the sound in the syllable).

The system of distinctive features can be built on a binary basis, when members are opposed according to the principle of presence and absence of articulation (eg [+ voice] for voiced consonants - [-voice] for voiceless consonants), or on a privative basis, when only the presence of an articulatory characteristic is a sign , and its absence is not registered in the system (eg [voice] for voiced consonants - for voiceless consonants). The privative feature system is widely used in feature geometry theory and in optimality theory.

Types of oppositions

Phonological typology

For phonological typology, see more Vocal systems, Consonant systems

The tasks of phonology, in addition to private language descriptions, include the description of various systems of vowel and consonant phonemes. The structure of these systems is determined by the set and type of oppositions that form these systems, which, in turn, requires preliminary selection of a set of phonological features relevant for a given language and the assignment of these features to each phoneme: even for structurally and genetically close languages, sometimes different decisions need to be made. For example, in some dialects of the Irish language, voiceless aspirated and voiced non-aspirated consonants are contrasted, and the sign of deafness-voiced is meaningful, and aspiration is predictable. On the contrary, in other dialects, voicedness has no phonological meaning, automatically accompanying distinctive lack of breath. At the same time, it is essential that in both those and other dialects the fricatives are opposed in voicing-voicelessness; accordingly, the structure of the consonant system as a whole in these two groups of dialects is very different.

In the typology of vocal systems, a division into very rare linear (Abkhazian, aranda), rectangular and triangular systems is accepted. In triangular systems (typical, for example, for most European or Bantu languages), the most important paradigmatic relation is the ascent opposition, vowel phonemes are concentrated at the “extreme points” of the vocal triangle (central vowels are rare). In rectangular systems (often associated with the development of vowel harmony), the opposition of the row is very significant, but also the ascent, for such languages \u200b\u200balternations associated precisely with the row are very characteristic (such as, for example, the Turkic vowel harmony).

Universal phonological classifications

In the work of Trubetskoy, it was proposed, among other things, a calculus of distinctive features found in various vocal and consonant systems. However, he did not make a clear distinction between features associated with articulatory properties (for example, "place of formation") and acoustic features such as "opacity correlation" (roughly corresponding to vowel tension-relaxation). In the work of R.O. Yakobson, M. Halle and G. Fant, a universal classification of segments according to distinctive features associated with acoustic characteristics of the speech signal. Later, the universal phonological classification of Chomsky - Halle, proposed in the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle, based more on the articulatory signs of segments, became widespread. In some modern theories, the concept of a sign plays an even greater role than the concept of a phoneme itself; sometimes other units take the place of traditional signs, for example, an articulatory gesture. There are also such theories that consider segments not just as bundles, but as hierarchically organized sets of features, which makes it possible to limit the set of possible operations on segments.

Development of phonology

Baudouin de Courtenay

"Fundamentals of Phonology" and the Prague Circle

American structuralism

Trubetskoy's criteria were very close to those distribution-based methods that were actively developed at that time in American descriptivism, in the works of Leonard Bloomfield, Morris Swadesh and others. Edward Sapir was partly close to the structuralists in his views. In particular, in the well-known work "Sound patterns in language", he emphasized that the linguistic significance of articulatory events is not due to their physical nature, but how they relate to other events in the system of a given language: for example, the sound produced when blowing out a candle, with acoustically similar to the sound found in several varieties of English in words which or white ([ʍ] ), but their linguistic significance is completely different.

In American structuralist phonology, the concept of two levels of representation was developed. These two levels were introduced to analyze facts like stunning final voiced voices in languages \u200b\u200bsuch as German or Russian. So, for Trubetskoy, the sound sequence was analyzed in phonological terms as / raT /, with an archiphoneme (a unit with an incomplete set of feature specifications) in the final position (where neutralization took place). Phonological representation / raT / at the same time correlates with two lexical units, orthographically Rad "wheel" and Rat "advice". In the procedural interpretation offered by American structuralists, these two units have different phonemic composition, respectively / rad / and / rat / (compare genitive forms Rates and Rades); a rule is postulated that translates / d / into / t / in the position of the end of a word. At the same time, in the early versions of American structuralism, the number of levels does not exceed two, even if this requires extremely nontrivial rules for the transition between them.

European schools of structuralism

The use of purely formal, distributive criteria was most widespread in the original concept of scientists working in Denmark, primarily L. Yelmslev, called glossmatics. In the field of the study of sound systems, Elmslev insisted, in particular, on the separation of substance (purely formal relations between linguistic units that create significance) and form (those signs of linguistic units that are related to the physical properties of their manifestations).

The original concept of the phonological structure of languages \u200b\u200bwas also proposed by the British researcher J.R. Furse and his London school of structuralism. In Foers's model, a significant role was played by the concept of prosody, understood as a unit that creates significance, covering more than one segment (background); thus, the role of classical phonemic analysis was diminished and at the same time a fairly simple analysis of such phenomena as, for example, assimilation was given.

The ideas of structuralism developed in the USSR, in particular, within the framework of the Moscow (R. I. Avanesov) and Leningrad (L. V. Shcherba) phonological schools.

Universal classifications and generative phonology

Significant advances in the development of instrumental phonetics have led to the fact that many generalizations regarding the sound structure of the world's languages \u200b\u200breceived a solid phonetic basis. The first significant work, where the goal of creating a universal classification of possible sounds in a natural language was set, was the book by R. O. Jacobson, Gunnar Fant and Morris Halle "Preliminary provisions of speech analysis". In this work, an attempt is made to present a universal classification of distinctive segments based on their acoustic correlates.

The development of generative phonology is usually associated with the work of Morris Halle "The Sound System of the Russian Language". Halle noted that many phenomena that are very similar from a phonetic point of view are described in very different ways within traditional phonological models. As an example, he cited assimilation by voicing (sandhi in Russian): in the traditional description, voicing in syntagma (corresponds to the spelling i would) can be described as an alternation of two phonemes (since / k / and / g / in Russian are undoubtedly different phonemes, cf. bark and mountain). At the same time, a completely analogous process of voicing in syntagma [ʒe dʒ bɨ] (would burn) is described in other terms (allophonic variation). Halle argued that the description in terms of the universal classification of sounds (according to which the sign of voicedness is distinctive for both / g /and for / dʒ /) is more adequate to the real functioning of the language system.

The most significant contribution to the approval of generative phonology was made by the work of N. Chomsky and M. Halle "The Sound Pattern of English" (SPE). It was the first to formulate the provisions that the grammar of a language (its phonological aspect) is a set of sounds / segments and rules for their transformation (phonological rules). The rules can be applied either arbitrarily or in a specific order. The concept of phoneme, allophone and syllable were excluded from the terminological arsenal. According to SPE principles, a segment undergoes transformation in a specific environment; and the latter can be characterized as a segment with certain characteristics, or as a sequence of a certain number of segments. The system for representing phonological rules includes a set of differential features that have a "+/-" value. Only the most essential features are used in the rule representation formula. For example, the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word in Russian in the system of generative phonology rules is written as

Consonant-sonorous

In most cases, the order in which the rules are applied turns out to be a necessary condition for an adequate description of phonological transformations. Some rules can be applied several times (cyclically) at different stages of morphological derivation. So, the rule for deleting super-short (b, b) in Russian is applied every time morphemes containing these segments are added to the stem. The SPE provisions on cyclicity in the derivation process were further developed in the theory of lexical phonology (P. Kiparsky, G. E. Bui, E. Rubakh).

Another direction in the development of generative phonology was auto-segmental phonology (J. Goldsmith) and the syllable theories (J. Clements and S. Keizer) and the geometry of features (J. Clements) that developed on its basis. Within the framework of this theory, the syllable and its parts, segments, as well as tones and differential signs are considered as separate independent elements of the phonological system. Features form a hierarchical structure subordinate to the segment, but they can change independently of the segment. For example, the assimilation process is interpreted as the operation of separating a feature from the root of a segment and associating it with a neighboring segment. There are various directions in the theory of the geometry of features, in which a set of differential features describing the place of formation of a segment is defined in different ways. The sign can correspond to either the main active articulator (lips, tip of the tongue, dorsum of the tongue, etc.), or a passive articulator (alveoli, palate, etc.). Feature geometry has become the main representational theory for modern US phonological schools.

The main phonological theory at present is the optimality theory (A. Prince and P. Smolensky). Within the framework of this theory, the concept of sequential application of the generation rules was replaced by the concept of choosing the optimal form in accordance with a certain group of constraints. Optimality theory describes the grammar of a language as a process of interaction of three main components: GEN (generator) - a component responsible for generating an infinite number of possible forms (candidates) based on lexical morphemes, CON (constraints) - a set of universal constraints applied to surface forms, and EVAL (evaluation) - a component that selects the optimal candidate form and screening out candidates that do not meet the constraints. Optimality theory proceeds from the idea that such restrictions are universal for all languages, can conflict with each other, are applied instantly and form a strict hierarchy. Later interpretations of optimality theory also recognize that individual constraints may not be in a hierarchical relationship with each other. In optimality theory, different languages \u200b\u200bdiffer only in the order of ranking of constraints. The optimality theory has been criticized from various positions, but the greatest criticism is caused by the inability of the theory to adequately explain the cases of phonetic irregularity (opacity), when the presence of intermediate forms is required in the process of converting the initial form to the surface one.

Our phonemes of speech perception turn out to be identical to the concept of phonemes developed by the Leningrad Phonological School (LFS). The founder of this school, Academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, worked in the first half of the 20th century in St. Petersburg - Petrograd - Leningrad. He and his students were guided by the task of teaching foreign languages, setting the correct pronunciation. Most textbooks of foreign languages \u200b\u200bin their phonetic part use the concepts and terminology developed by Shcherba. The very phonological theory of Shcherba was best presented in his textbook "Phonetics of the French language". Later, these concepts were supported by researchers engaged in the instrumental study of sound speech and the design of automatic speech recognition systems.

Moscow phonological school

The concept of phonemes of speech production turns out to coincide with the phonological system according to the theory of the Moscow Phonological School (MFS). A striking representative of this school is Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky. The main works, in which the views of this direction are formulated, are devoted to the description of the native (Russian) language. Initially, each phonological school considered its constructions as the only correct teaching about the sound structure of language. With the passage of time, however, mainly in the depths of the Moscow school, the tendency of comprehensive discussion of problems and synthesis of phonological theories prevailed. The first attempt at such a synthesis was undertaken by one of the founders of the IDF Ruben Ivanovich Avanesov. He put forward the concept of "weak phonemes", which, along with "strong" ones, are part of linguistic signs. If the phoneme of speech perception is a set of indistinguishable sounds determined by the position in speech, the phoneme of speech production is a program for choosing one or another sound depending on the position, then Avanesov's weak phoneme is a set of differential features (those and only those) that must be indicated for defining the sound at this position. From the point of view of the structure of the linguistic mechanism, Avanesov's phonemes really occupy an intermediate position between the phonemes of speech production and speech perception. They are associated with commands to the executive organs of speech, developed programs for the implementation of signs in order to create one or another acoustic effect corresponding to the necessary phoneme of speech perception.

Prague phonological school

Another phonological theory, intermediate between the theories of LFS and MFS, was developed by the so-called Prague Phonological School (PFS), which arose in Prague simultaneously with MFS and LFS by the works of Russian linguists who emigrated from the revolution. It was this school that became the most famous in the West, and its most prominent representative Nikolai Sergeevich Trubetskoy is considered the founder and classic of world phonology. Similarly to Avanesov, Trubetskoy distinguishes two kinds of sound units in the composition of the word - phonemes and archiphonemes. Archiphonemes appear in cases when the conditions of the speech chain do not make it possible to recognize which particular phoneme of speech production was the basis for the appearance of a given sound. The concept of an archiphoneme essentially coincides with the concept of a weak phoneme by Avanesov. Another interpretation of the phenomenon of neutralizing phoneme differences in the speech chain was given by the Moscow phonologist Pyotr Savvich Kuznetsov in the concept of a hyperphoneme. A hyperphoneme is a set of all phonemes that a given sound can give. From the point of view of the structure of the linguistic mechanism, such a unit corresponds to the development of a system of hypotheses regarding the comparison of a chain of phonemes of speech perception perceived by hearing to one or another sign (word) represented in memory by a chain of phonemes of speech production.

American phonology

In those same years - at the beginning of the 20th century - the school of descriptive phonology developed in the United States, which solved the problem of describing the languages \u200b\u200bof the American Indians. Their concept was close to the views of the Leningrad phonological school.In particular, American descriptivists most clearly formulated the procedure for dividing the speech stream into phonemes of speech perception. In the post-war years, under the influence of advances in computer technology, American linguists for the first time directly raised the issue of technical modeling of language ability. The pioneer of these works was also a native of Russia (or rather, from Poland) Noam Chomsky (Americans pronounce this name as Noum Chamsky). His work founded the direction called generative linguistics. Its task was set as the construction of a formal model (automaton) of production (generation) of correct statements in a specific language. The phonological part of the generative theory arose thanks to the work of another Russian - Roman Osipovich Yakobson, who emigrated from Prague (where he was a prominent member of the Prague School) to America in connection with the Second World War. Describing the generation (production) of speech, generative phonology naturally came to a concept close to the Moscow phonological school. True, it must be said that at first the generativists tried to interpret speech production too abstractly as an action of some kind of formal calculus, like algebra, which, however, led to the emergence of the theory of formal languages \u200b\u200bwithin mathematics, which already has an indirect relationship to linguistics. The general scheme of phonetic speech production in generative phonology is that linguistic signs, through successive transformations according to linguistic rules, are transformed from an internal (deep) representation in the phonemes of speech production into a superficial representation by speech sound types. Taking the terminology of generativists, one can call the phonemes of speech production as deep phonemes, and phonemes of speech perception as surface phonemes.