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2. Historical Background to the International Oil Pricing System
The emergence of the current oil price system cannot be understood in isolation from previous ones. It has
emerged in response to major shifts in the global political and economic structures, changes in power
balances, and economic and political transformations that fundamentally changed the structure of the oil
market and the supply chain. This chapter discusses the major transformations in the oil market during the
period 1950-1988 that led to the emergence of the current international oil pricing system.
The Era of the Posted Price
Until the late 1950s, the international oil industry outside the United States, Canada, the USSR and China
was characterised by the dominant position of the large multinational oil companies known as the Seven
Sisters or the majors. The host governments did not participate in production or pricing of crude oil and
acted only as competing sellers of licences or oil concessions. In return, host governments received a
stream of income through royalties and income taxes.
Each of the Seven Sisters was vertically integrated and had control of both upstream operations
(exploration, development and production of oil)
8
and to a significant but lesser extent of downstream
operations (transportation, refining and marketing). At the same time, they controlled the rate of supply of
crude oil going into the market through joint ownership of companies that operated in various countries.
The vertical and horizontal linkages enabled the multinational oil companies to control the bulk of oil
exports from the major oil-producing countries and to prevent large amounts of crude oil accumulating in
the hands of sellers, thus minimising the risk of sellers competing to dispose of unwanted crude oil to
independent buyers and thus pushing prices down (Penrose, 1968).
The oil pricing system associated with the concession system until the mid 1970s was centred on the
concept of a „posted‟ price, which was used to calculate the stream of revenues accruing to host
governments. Spot prices, transfer prices and long-term contract prices could not play such a fiscal role.
The vertically and horizontally integrated industrial structure of the oil market meant that oil trading
became to a large extent a question of inter-company exchange with no free market operating outside
these companies‟ control. This resulted in an underdeveloped spot market. Transfer prices used in
transactions within the subsidiaries of an oil company did not reflect market conditions but were merely
used by multinational oil companies to minimise their worldwide tax liabilities by transferring profits
from high-tax to low-tax jurisdictions. Because some companies were crude long and others crude short,
transactions used to occur between the multinational oil companies on the basis of long-term contracts.
However, the prices used in these contracts were never disclosed, with oil companies considering this
information to be a commercial secret. Oil-exporting countries were also not particularly keen on using
contract prices as these were usually lower than posted prices.
Thus, the calculations of the royalty and income tax per barrel of crude oil going to the host governments
had to be based on posted prices. Being a fiscal parameter, the posted price did not respond to the usual
market forces of supply and demand and thus did not play any allocation function (Mabro, 1984). The
multinational oil companies were comfortable with the system of posted prices because it maintained their
oligopolistic position, and until the late 1960s OPEC countries were too weak to change the existing
pricing system.
The Pricing System Shaken but Not Broken
By the late 1950s, the dominance of the vertically integrated companies was challenged by the arrival of
independent oil companies who were able to invest in upstream operations and obtain access to crude oil
outside the Seven Sisters‟ control. In the mid 1950s, Venezuela granted independents (mainly from the
8
In 1950 the majors controlled 85% of the crude oil production in the world outside Canada, USA, Soviet Russia
and China (Danielsen, 1982).
15
US) some oil concessions, and by 1965 non-majors were responsible for 15% of total Venezuelan
production (Parra, 2004).
9
Oil discovery in Libya increased the importance of independents in oil
production, for the Libyan government chose as a matter of policy to attract a diverse set of oil companies
and not only the majors. In 1965, production by independents in Libya totalled around 580 thousand b/d
increasing to 1.1 million b/d in 1968 (Parra, 2004). Competition with the majors also appeared elsewhere.
In the late 1950s, Iran signed two exploration and development agreements in the Persian Gulf offshore
with non-majors and in 1951, Saudi Arabia entered into an agreement with the Japan Petroleum Trading
Company to explore and develop Saudi Arabia‟s fields in the Neutral Zone offshore area.
10
Crude oil
from the Former Soviet Union also began to make its way into the market. The discovery and
development of large fields in the Soviet bloc led to a rapid growth in Russian oil exports from less than
100,000 b/d in 1956 to nearly 700,000 b/d in 1961 (Parra, 2004).
While these and other developments led to the emergence of a market for buying and selling crude oil
outside the control of the Seven Sisters, the total volume of crude oil from US independents and other
companies operating in Venezuela, Libya and the Gulf offshore remained small. Furthermore, the growth
of Russian exports came to a halt after 1967 and production levels declined in 1969 and 1970 (Parra,
2004). These factors limited the scope and size of the market and by the late 1960s the majors were still
the dominant force both in the upstream and downstream parts of the oil industry (Penrose, 1968).
Nevertheless, competitive pressures from other oil producers were partly responsible for the multinational
oil companies‟ decision to cut the posted price in 1959 and 1960. The US decision to impose mandatory
import quotas which increased competition for outlets outside the US was an additional factor that placed
downward pressure on oil prices. The formation of OPEC in 1960 was an attempt by member countries to
prevent the decline in the posted price (Skeet, 1988) and thus for most of the 1960s, OPEC acted as a
trade union whose main objective was to prevent the income of its member countries from declining.
The Emergence of the OPEC Administered Pricing System
Between 1965 and 1973, global demand for oil increased at a fast rate with an average annual increase of
more than 3 million b/d during this period (BP Statistical Review 2010). Most of this increase was met by
OPEC which massively increased its production from around 14 million b/d in 1965 to close to 30 million
b/d in 1973. During this period, OPEC‟s share in global crude oil production increased from 44% in 1965
to 51% in 1973.
Other developments in the early 1970s, such as Libya‟s production cutbacks and the
sabotage of the Saudi Tapline in Syria, tightened further the supply-demand balance.
These oil market conditions created a strong seller‟s market and significantly increased OPEC
governments‟ power relative to the multinational oil companies. In September 1970 the Libyan
government reached an agreement with Occidental in which this independent oil company agreed to pay
income taxes on the basis of increased posted price and to make retroactive payment to compensate for
the lost revenue since 1965. Occidental was the ideal company to pressurise: unlike the majors, it relied
heavily on Libyan production and did not have much access to oil in other parts of the world. Soon
afterwards, all other companies operating in Libya submitted to these new terms. As a result of this
agreement, other oil-producing countries invoked the most favoured nation clause and made it clear that
they would not accept anything less than the terms granted to Libya. The negotiations conducted in
Tehran resulted in a collective decision to raise the posted price and increase the tax rate.
In September 1973, OPEC decided to reopen negotiations with the companies to revise the Tehran
Agreement and seek large increases in the posted price. Oil companies refused OPEC‟s demand for this
increase and negotiations collapsed. As a result, on 16 October 1973, the six Gulf members of OPEC
9
This share though declined from 1966 onwards.
10
The volume of oil produced from these concessions did not constitute a serious threat to the majors, but the
conclusion of the agreements led to other host governments exerting pressure for better terms in their existing
concessions.
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unilaterally announced an immediate increase in the posted price of the Arabian Light crude from $3.65
to $5.119. On 19 October 1973, members of the Organization of Arab Oil Producing Countries (less Iraq)
announced production cuts of 5% of the September volume and a further 5% per month until „the total
evacuation of Israeli forces from all Arab territory occupied during the June 1967 war is completed and
the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people are restored‟ (Skeet, 1988, quotations in original). In
December 1973, OPEC raised the posted price of the Arabian Light further to $11.651. This jump in price
was unprecedented. More importantly, the year 1973 represented a dramatic shift in the balance of power
towards OPEC. For the first time in its history, OPEC assumed a unilateral role in setting the posted price
(Terzian, 1985). Before that date, OPEC had been only able to prevent oil companies from reducing it.
The Consolidation of the OPEC Administered Pricing System
The oil industry witnessed a major transformation in the early 1970s when some OPEC governments
stopped granting new concessions
11
and started to claim equity participation in their existing concessions,
with a few of them opting for full nationalisation.
12
Demands for equity participation emerged in the early
1960s, but the multinational oil companies downplayed these calls. They became more wary in the late
1960s when they realized that even moderate countries such as Saudi Arabia had begun to make similar
calls for equity participation. In 1971, a Ministerial Committee was established to devise a plan for the
effective implementation of the participation agreement. OPEC‟s six Gulf members (Abu Dhabi, Iran,
Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Kuwait) agreed to negotiate the participation agreement with oil companies
collectively and empowered the Saudi oil Minister Zaki Yamani to negotiate in their name. In October
1972, after many rounds of negotiations, the oil companies agreed to an initial 25% participation which
would reach 51% in 1983. Out of the six Gulf States, Saudi Arabia, Abu Dhabi and later Qatar signed the
general participation agreement. Iran announced its withdrawal early in 1972. Iraq opted for
nationalisation in 1972. In Kuwait, the parliament fiercely opposed the agreement and in 1974 the
government took a 60% stake in the Kuwait oil company and called for a 100% stake by 1980. 100%
equity participation in Kuwait was achieved in 1976 and Qatar followed suit in 1976-77.
Equity participation gave OPEC governments a share of the oil produced which they had to sell to third-
party buyers. It led to the introduction of new pricing concepts to deal with this reality (Mabro, 1984). As
owners of crude oil, governments had to set a price for third-party buyers. The concept of official selling
price (OSP) or government selling price (GSP) entered at this point and is still currently used by some oil
exporters. However, for reasons of convenience, lack of marketing experience and inability to integrate
downwards into refining and marketing in oil-importing countries, most of the governments‟ share was
sold back to the companies that held the concession and produced the crude oil in the first place. These
sales were made compulsory as part of equity participation agreements and used to be transacted at
buyback prices.
The complex oil pricing system of the early 1970s centred on three different concepts of prices: the
posted price, the official selling price, and the buyback price. Such a system was highly inefficient as it
meant that a buyer could obtain a barrel of oil at different prices (Mabro, 2005). Lack of information and
transparency also meant that there was no adjustment mechanism to ensure that these prices converge.
Thus, this regime was short-lived and by 1975 had ceased to exist.
11
As early as 1957, Egypt and Iran started turning away from concessions to new contractual forms such as joint
venture schemes and service contracts. In 1964, Iraq decided not to grant any more oil concessions (Terzian, 1985).
12
Nationalisation of oil concessions in the Middle East extends well before that date. Other than Mossadegh‟s
attempt at nationalisation in 1951, in 1956 Egypt nationalised Shell‟s interest in the country. In 1958, Syria
nationalized the Karatchock oilfields and in 1963 the entire oil sector came under the government control. In 1967,
„Algerisation‟ of oil companies had already begun and by 1970 all non-French oil interests were nationalized. In
1971, French interests were subject to Algerisation with the government taking 51% of French companies‟ stakes
(Terzian, 1985).
17
The administered oil pricing regime that emerged in 1974-75 after the short lived episode of the buyback
system was radical in many aspects, not least because it represented a complete shift in the power of
setting the oil price from multinational companies to OPEC. The new system was centred on the concept
of reference or marker price with Saudi Arabia‟s Arabian Light being the chosen marker crude. In this
administered pricing system, individual members retained the OSPs for their crudes, but these were now
set in relation to the reference price. The differential relative to the marker price used to be adjusted
periodically depending on a variety of factors such as the relative supply and demand for each crude
variety and the relative price of petroleum products among other things. The flexibility of adjusting
differentials by oil-exporting countries complicated the process of administering the marker price. In the
slack market of 1983, OPEC opted for a more rigid system of setting price differentials, but it was
unsuccessful.
The Genesis of the Crude Oil Market
Equity participation and nationalisation profoundly affected the structure of the oil industry. Multinational
oil companies lost large reserves of crude oil and found themselves increasingly net short and dependent
on OPEC supplies. The degree of vertical integration between upstream and downstream considerably
weakened. Oil companies retained both their upstream and downstream assets, but their position became
more imbalanced and in one direction: the companies no longer had enough access to crude oil to meet
their downstream requirements. This encouraged the development of an oil market outside the inter-
multinational oil companies‟ trade. However, during the years 1975−78, OPEC countries remained
dependent on multinational oil companies to lift and dispose of the crude oil and initially sold only low
volumes through their national oil companies to firms other than the old concessionaires. Thus, at the
early stages of the OPEC-administered pricing system, the majors continued to have preferential access to
crude which narrowed the scope of a competitive oil market.
The situation changed in the late 1970s with the emergence of new players on the global oil scene.
National oil companies in OPEC started to increase the number of their non-concessionaire customers.
The appearance of independent oil companies, Japanese and independent refineries, state oil companies,
trading houses and oil traders permitted such a development. The pace accelerated during and in the
aftermath of the 1979 Iranian crisis. The new regime in Iran cancelled any previous agreements with the
oil majors in marketing Iranian oil: they became mere purchasers as with any other oil companies. In
Libya, there was a switch away from the main term contract customers, including majors, to new
customers − primarily governments and state oil corporations. Other OPEC countries followed suit soon
afterwards.
During the 1979 crisis, spot crude prices rose faster than official selling prices. The long-term contract
represented an agreement between the buyer and the seller that specified the quantity of oil to be
delivered while the price was linked to the OPEC marker price. These contracts obliged producers to sell
certain quantities of oil to the majors at the marker price. This meant that oil companies would have been
able to capture the entire differential between official selling prices and the spot prices by buying from
governments and selling in the spot market or through term contracts with other companies having no
direct access to producers. This was unacceptable to producers and governments started selling their
crude oil directly to third-party buyers (Stevens, 1985). Faced with a large number of bidders, small
OPEC producers such as Kuwait began to place an official mark-up over the marker price. By abandoning
their long-term contracts, the producers had the freedom to sell to buyers who offered the highest mark-up
over the marker price.
13
The result was that the majors lost access to large volumes of crude oil that were
available to them under long-term contracts. This had the effect of dramatically worsening the imbalance
13
Saudi Arabia was a major exception to this behaviour. They maintained their long-term contracts with the four
Aramco concessionaires (Exxon, Chevron, Texaco and Mobil) who continued to obtain oil at the OPEC official
price and enjoyed what their competitors referred to bitterly as the „Aramco advantage‟.
18
within oil companies and reduced the degree of integration between downstream and upstream with the
latter becoming only a small fraction of the former.
Faced with this virtual disruption of traditional supply channels, multinational oil companies were forced
to enter the market. This had a profound effect on oil markets as de-integration and the emergence of new
players expanded the external market where buyers and sellers engaged in arm‟s-length transactions. The
crude market became more competitive and the majority of oil used to move through short-term contracts
or the spot market. Prior to these developments, the spot market had consisted of a small number of
transactions usually done under distressed conditions, for the disposal of small amounts of crude oil not
covered by long-term contracts.
The Collapse of the OPEC Administered Pricing System
The decline in oil demand in the mid 1980s caused by a worldwide economic recession and the growth in
non-OPEC crude oil production responding to higher oil prices and taking advantage of new technologies
represented major challenges to OPEC‟s administered pricing system and were ultimately responsible for
its demise. New discoveries in non-OPEC countries meant that significant amounts of oil began to reach
the international market from outside OPEC.
14
This increase in supply also meant an increase in the
number and diversity of crude oil producers who were setting their prices in line with market conditions
and hence proved to be more competitive. The new suppliers who ended up having more crude oil than
required by contract buyers secured the sale of all their production by undercutting OPEC prices in the
spot market. Buyers who became more diverse were attracted to these offers of competitive prices. With
the continued decline in demand for its oil, OPEC saw its own market share in the world‟s oil production
fall from 51% in 1973 to 28% in 1985.
Under these pressures, disagreements within OPEC began to surface. Saudi Arabia used to lose market
share with every increase in the marker price and hence opposed them while other OPEC members
pushed for large increases. At times, disagreements within OPEC led to the adoption of a two-tiered price
reference structure. This emerged first in late 1976 when Saudi Arabia and UAE set a lower price for the
marker crude than the rest of OPEC.
15
It was repeated in 1980 when Saudi Arabia used $32 per barrel for
the marker while the other OPEC members used the per barrel marker of $36. Thus, two new concepts
were introduced: the actual marker price which was fixed by Saudi Arabia and the deemed marker price
which was fixed by the rest of OPEC (Amuzegar, 1999).
It became clear by the mid 1980s that the OPEC-administered oil pricing system was unlikely to hold for
long and OPEC‟s or more precisely Saudi Arabia‟s, attempts to defend the marker price would only result
in loss of market share as other producers could offer to sell their oil at a discount to the administered
price of Arabian Light. As a result of these pressures, the demand for Saudi oil declined from 10.2 million
b/d in 1980 to 3.6 million b/d in 1985.
In 1986 and for a short period of time, Saudi Arabia adopted the netback pricing system to restore the
country‟s market share.
16
Soon after other oil exporting countries followed suit. The netback pricing
14
This process began well before the 1970s. The North Sea attracted oil companies from the early 1960s and the
first rounds of leasing were awarded in 1964 and 1965. In 1969, oil was found in the Norwegian sector and in 1970
a major find (the Ekofisk field) was confirmed. In the UK sector, Amoco found in 1969 some oil but it was deemed
to be non-commercial. In 1970, BP drilled the exploratory well that found the Forties field. One year later, Shell-
Esso discovered the Brent field (Parra, 2004). It is important to note that all these major discoveries preceded the
large rise in oil prices. Seymour (1990) shows that half of the increase in non-OPEC supply over the 1975−85 period
would have materialised regardless of the level of oil prices.
15
This two-tier pricing system lasted until July 1977 when Saudi Arabia and UAE announced acceptance of the
price $12.70 for the marker crude.
16
For a detailed analysis of the netback pricing system and the 1986 price collapse, see Mabro (1986).
19
system provided oil companies with a guaranteed refining margin even if oil prices were to collapse.
17
Under this system, refineries had the incentive to run at a high capacity leading to an oversupply of
petroleum products. Lower product prices pulled down crude oil prices and caused the collapse of the
crude oil price from $26.69 on 1 July, 1985 to $9.15 a barrel on the 21 July, 1986.
18
Out of the 1986 oil
price crisis, the current „market-related‟ oil pricing system emerged. However, the transition did not occur
instantaneously. In 1987, Saudi Arabia reverted back to official pricing for a short period of time, but its
position was untenable as many other oil exporting countries have already made the switch to the more
flexible market-related pricing system. The date as to when Saudi Arabia explicitly adopted the pricing
formulae is not clear but it might have occurred sometime in 1987 (Horsnell and Mabro, 1993). This
opened a new chapter in the history of the oil market which saw OPEC abandon the administered pricing
system and transfer the pricing power of crude oil to the so-called market.
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