Assessment Schedule – 2011

Topic One: Essay (f)

Describe the situation that led to the adoption of the Instrument of Government and the Protectorate in 1653. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Protectorate in providing stable government till 1659.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

• 
  On 7th February 1649, the Monarchy in England was officially abolished as being ‘unnecessary, burdensome and dangerous’. The execution of Charles I in 1649 created a power vacuum in England that was filled by a variety of political experiments that had difficulty finding stability and acceptance in a time of chaos and turmoil. Overriding all of this was the ghost of Charles I, and the questions over the legality of both his execution and the experiments themselves.
  
• 
  England now officially became a Commonwealth, with the House of Lords abolished. Conservatives realised they were in fact under a military regime using the Rump Parliament as a cloak of legality and respectability – the last vestige of the traditional political system. On 17 May, the Rump Parliament (the 60 to 70 survivors of Pride’s Purge from the elected Long Parliament of 1640) enacted that England should be governed by a Council of State with 40 members (31 MPs and 9 army officers). The Rump Parliament itself continued in constant session. It had to cope with dislocation caused by the Civil Wars, the expectations of a politicised army, the hopes of republicans, an economic slump and pressures for religious reform.
  
• 
  Seizure of power by the army had alienated the majority of the traditional governing class, who recognised the threat to their own status and authority. All males over the age of 18 were required to swear the ‘Engagement Oath’ to be ‘true and faithful’ to the Commonwealth. This was too much for many gentry, who preferred to drop out of public life.
  
• 
  By 1653, the Rump Parliament’s continued obstruction of even modest social, legal and religious reforms and avoidance of the prospect of new elections frustrated army leaders. Cromwell found himself having to choose between his role as an MP and army commander-in-chief. Having no large group of civilian MPs to support him, Cromwell chose to break all links with traditional forms of government and used the army to dissolve the Rump. The New Model Army was now the sole political authority directing affairs and Cromwell their most important leader.
  
• 
  Between 1649 and 1653, Cromwell became the arbiter of English affairs despite the fact that military campaigns took him away from politics at first. As the Commonwealth’s most successful general, Cromwell was required to ensure her security from outside threats and used the army to re-impose English control of Ireland and suppress Charles II’s attempt, with the support of the Scots, to invade England. He also put down a Leveller mutiny in the army at Burford. His experiences of leading the army to victory over all opponents, combined with his deep religious convictions, made him believe that he and the army were God’s chosen instruments.
  
• 
  The Barebones Assembly that replaced the Rump was simply a reflection of the army leadership’s desire (and perhaps Cromwell’s) to experiment with ‘godly reformation’ in England. It was an appointed group of 140 gentry selected for their ‘godliness’ with 5 representatives from Scotland and six from Ireland. Despite constant divisions between radicals and conservatives, they did introduce civil marriage, registration of births, deaths and marriages, more humane treatment of the mentally ill and simplified law court procedures. However, an attempt to abolish tithes upset those who were still profiting from their impropriation of what was meant to be a source of Church revenue, and moderates in the Assembly voted to dissolve themselves and hand power back to Cromwell. Cromwell, himself, appears to have been seriously alarmed at the confused wrangling within the Assembly.
  
• 
  A council of army officers then devised the Instrument of Government. England was to be ruled by a Lord Protector (Cromwell refused the title of monarch) chosen by Parliament for life. He would be assisted by a Council of State. A Parliament of 400 would represent England, Ireland and Scotland and would be called every three years to sit for five months. The Engagement Act was repealed to allow a greater number to be willing to serve. A standing army of 30 000 men would be maintained under the Lord Protector. Religious toleration would be granted except to Anglicans and Catholics.
  
• 
  The Protectorate’s constitution was not fully accepted by the ensuing Parliament. Argument arose over the role and size of army, Cromwell’s powers and the degree of religious toleration permitted. This move to what seemed a more familiar, and traditional form of government in an attempt to find political stability was doomed to fail.
  

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:

• 
  Each of the Protectorate’s political experiments was unsuccessful and unacceptable to the governing class. The ‘ghost’ of Charles I and the traditional appeal of monarchy hung over all the political experiments, but the role of the army and concerns about its political involvement and power were most crucial in determining their lack of success. Seizure of power by the army had alienated the majority of the traditional governing class, who recognised its pretentions as a threat to their own status and authority in central government and in the counties.
  
• 
  For most of the governing class, the civil wars had been a traumatic experience not to be repeated. They could not accept any government associated with the regicides. The vast majority of gentry simply opted to drop out of public life and any active part in local government leaving their roles to inexperienced members of the lesser gentry.
  
• 
  A standing army remained necessary throughout the Protectorate to ensure Britain’s security against foreign threats and rebellion from the disaffected. However, the presence of such a large army was also expensive to maintain and the heavy taxation for it was widely resented especially since many gentry had lost estates, suffered imprisonment and been severely fined during the Civil Wars.
  
• 
  The Instrument of Government and Humble Petition and Advice was a return to more familiar and traditional political mechanisms that had the potential to be more acceptable to the governing class and bring greater stability. The Council and Parliaments were civilian-dominated. Cromwell had become Lord Protector because he was the only choice. He had led the army to a remarkable series of victories and sympathised with many of its aims and aspirations. The army trusted him and he could control its more radical elements. As a typical country gentleman concerned for law and order and stability, he had some standing with the conservative governing class. He had rejected military dictatorship showing he wanted a return to “the old ways” with due respect to civil rights and the rule of law. It seemed that without him, the country might descend into chaos. Nonetheless, although he bridged the civilian–military gap, Cromwell’s leadership qualities, was not enough on its own to attract the support of the governing class and ensure stability.
  
• 
  The seizure of political power in the localities by the army Major-Generals in 1655 – 56 completely alienated the traditional governing class. They deeply resented the manner in which ‘lowborn’ army officers were able to defy or ignore their status and authority and make demands of them that were demeaning. The moral reforms they attempted to institute were highly unpopular and a cause for much bickering and discontent.
  
• 
  The great degree of religious variance and toleration permitted under the Protectorate was also highly controversial. Cromwell’s loosely organised national Church, desire for religious toleration and the emergence of radical sects was alarming to the governing class.
  
• 
  Some positives did emerge from the Protectorate. After Cromwell’s victories in Ireland and Scotland, the Navigation Act, the development of a powerful navy and defeat of the Dutch, Britons felt not only more secure, but experienced an enhanced international reputation. However, the Protectorate had not provided domestic stability. The governing class still could not come to terms with what to them were essentially illegal regimes bolstered by a large and expensive standing army. They longed for a return to traditional political mechanisms and to their conventional roles in central and local government and society. To them stability, prosperity and order could only come with the restoration of monarchy.
  

Achievement	Achievement with Merit	Achievement with Excellence
Through her / his response to the first part of the essay question, the candidate has accurately described factors that contributed to the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)	Through her / his response to the first part of the essay question, the candidate has accurately explained factors that contributed to the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)	Through her / his response to the first part of the essay question, the candidate has accurately and perceptively explained factors that contributed to the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)
Through her / his response to the second part of the essay question, the candidate has accurately described the consequences of the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)	Through her / his response to the second part of the essay question, the candidate has evaluated the consequences of the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)	Through the breadth, depth and/or range of ideas in her / his response to the second part of the question the candidate has comprehensively evaluated the consequences of the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)
The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using an appropriate essay format. Introductory paragraph Relevant, structured and logically sequenced paragraphs Conclusion	The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using an appropriate essay format. Introductory paragraph Relevant, structured and logically sequenced paragraphs Conclusion The candidate has provided an argument, i.e. the candidate has stated a view and supported it with relevant and accurate evidence (probably most obvious in the evaluative part of her / his essay).	The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using an appropriate and effective essay format. Introductory paragraph Relevant, structured and logically sequenced paragraphs Conclusion The candidate has provided a convincing argument, i.e. the candidate has a clearly articulated view and has supported it with sound reasoning and relevant, accurate, and significant evidence (probably most obvious in the evaluative part of her / his essay).

Content Guidelines

Topic Two: New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century
Topic Two: Essay One

Describe the various ways in which New Zealand was connected to the outside world during the early contact period. Evaluate which connection had the most significant impact on different Māori societies between 1800 and 1840.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

• 
  The connections that were made between New Zealand and the outside world were centred mainly on the following areas:
  

Whaling:

• 
  Plenty of opportunities for connections to the outside world as Māori worked on whaling ships and travelled to London, Sydney, and Hobart. These Māori whalers weren’t always well treated, but they learned a great deal about the world outside New Zealand.
  
• 
  The Bay of Islands was frequently the location of stopovers for whalers. Many negotiated for sex with Māori women. The whalers also wanted water, food, and timber. Economic connections to the outside world were made as trade grew, particularly with New South Wales. Kororareka became notorious and was known as the “hell hole of the South Pacific”.
  
• 
  Along the east coast from Mahia all the way to Stewart Island there were shore-based whaling stations. Intermarriage between Pākehā whalers and Māori women was very common. Māori also became very involved in shore-based whaling.
  

Sealing:

• 
  There was some contact between sealers and Māori and some intermarriage especially in the Deep South around Stewart Island. Sealing ships came from Hobart, Sydney, Britain, and the United States. The majority of the sealers were American. Māori in Murihiku (Southland) and on Stewart Island and Ruapuke provided food and labour. All these characteristics of the sealing industry helped connect this country to the outside world.
  

The timber trade:

• 
  This was concentrated largely in the far north, especially Hokianga. Māori benefited from ship building as capital was pumped into the hapū associated with the ship builders. Thomas McDonnell’s shipyard at Te Horeke came under the mana of Te Taonui of Te Mahurehure (New Zealand Historical Atlas).
  

Traders:

• 
  Most of the traders that visited New Zealand during this period did so erratically, but some Europeans settled in New Zealand in order to be traders. Often they worked as agents of trading companies based in Sydney. Some came under Māori control but they were important mediators between Māori and the outside world. Traders certainly helped make economic connections to the outside world.
  

Intermarriage:

• 
  Many Māori women who had either permanent or temporary relationships with Pākehā men served as important connections between the cultures and the outside world.
  

Missionary contact with Māori:

• 
  As a result of a European evangelical revival, the Church Missionary Society (Anglican) established their mission in Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands in 1814. Their initial plan was to civilise Māori in order to evangelise them. The Methodist (or Wesleyan) mission began in Whangaroa in 1823 and the Catholic Mission was established at Kororareka in 1838 after the arrival of the Frenchman, Bishop Pompallier. The missionaries connected this country to the outside world both socially, economically and politically through their attempts to change Māori culture into one modelled on a British Christian view of morality, their teaching of agricultural skills which helped create a thriving economic base and through their connecting Māori to a relationship with the Crown – William Yate and the 1831 petition to William IV.
  

The increasing involvement of the British Crown in New Zealand:

• 
  Despite their reluctance to be involved and the crown did build relationships with Māori. Early Māori links with NSW Governors; chiefs Hongi and Waikato met King George IV in 1820; the Elizabeth Affair, Busby and the Declaration of Independence; Captain Hobson as Lieutenant Governor.
  
• 
  Busby moved to create a flag for this country in response to the seizure of the “Sir George Murray”, a flag which was clearly referenced to the flag of England.
  

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include:

• 
  Arguments based on the significance of contact with the deep sea whalers who called for extended periods in the Bay of Islands resulting in:
  

• 
  Growing lawlessness, contributing to the notion of the ‘hellhole of the Pacific’
  
• 
  The introduction of sexually transmitted infections which would impact significantly on Māori fertility and mortality
  
• 
  An ability for Māori to join whaling crews and travel overseas, creating an awareness of other societies and cultures.
  

• 
  Māori agency was at work during this period as Māori took Pākehā goods and ideas and used them for their own reasons and spread them amongst themselves. There was significant change in the lifestyles of many Māori as they embraced aspects of European life, marrying European men and adopting and adapting their tools, artefacts, and weapons etc. for their own use. However, many Māori in certain areas at certain times suffered from disease because of a lack of immunity.
  
• 
  The impact of Missionary Christianity on Māori. This was a significant impact as it changed the world views of many Māori . Initially, very few Māori converted to Christianity as Hongi Hika dominated the missionaries. (He may have protected the missionaries in order to give the Bay of Islands a reputation for peace, which might enhance the amount of trade that took place in the region ). In the 1830s, thousands of Māori converted to Christianity. (Candidates are likely to discuss the views of different historians concerning this issue. High-performing candidates will do so in a manner that focuses on the impact of Christianity on Māori rather than a long download of historiography. Some may discuss the importance of literacy in Māori conversion). By 1840, many Māori had begun to develop their own versions of Christianity, which in some cases rejected missionary interpretations of the Bible.
  
• 
  The growing importance of the musket and the changes that occurred to relations between Māori and Pākehā as a result. The musket meant Pākehā became crucial to survival as a source of weapons for a new form of warfare. This was a significant change as Māori had initially had considerable control over the Pākehā traders.
  
• 
  The changes that occurred to Māori warfare as a result of the introduction of the musket. A new type of warfare for the old reasons. The Musket Wars killed 20 000. This had a significant impact on Māori societies. In many cases, this led to migration from traditional lands. While different societies had differing degrees of contact, the societal dislocation caused by conflict affected Māori societies throughout the North Island and to a lesser degree in the South Island.
  
• 
  Pākehā involvement in inter-tribal affairs (eg Elizabeth Affair) had an impact on the Māori world.
  
• 
  There was an exchange of ideas and beliefs during this period. It was a two-way process, eg Pākehā imitated Māori medicine as well as vice versa.
  
• 
  Pan-tribalism began to develop during this period (eg the Declaration of Independence) as some Māori began to unite in response to outside influences. This was to become much more significant in the post-Treaty period.
  
• 
  Not all Māori societies were affected in the same way. For Nga Puhi the impact of the whalers, missionaries and traders was considerable. For inland societies there was relatively little impact. While some hapu moved to where there was access to trade and to where flax grew in profusion allowing for commerce to flourish, for many change was to come after the Treaty.
  

Fatal Impact versus Acculturation: Candidates will be familiar with this discussion. It is one that needs to be integrated into an argument rather than a descriptive account of what Harrison Wright claims and Belich et alia refute.

Topic Two: Essay Two

Describe the different methods by which Māori attempted to assert sovereignty in Taranaki from 1860 to 1900. Evaluate the extent to which these attempt to assert sovereignty were successful by 1900.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include:

• 
  A number of wars were fought in Taranaki by Imperial troops and colonial militia against Taranaki Māori and members of Te Kingitanga. Māori also attempted to assert sovereignty through the emergence of prophetic movements that combined traditional and new aspects of religious practice in a response to colonisation. At Parihaka this took the shape of the extraordinary response of passively resisting land alienation.
  
• 
  In the period after the initial Pākehā settlement of New Plymouth, several blocks of land had been purchased from Taranaki and Te Ati Awa hapū. Most of this land was inland and covered in bush. Pākehā settlers were eager to acquire the more fertile land around the Waitara River, which flowed into a river mouth harbour. New Plymouth lacked a decent harbour.
  
• 
  The settlers were jealous that 4000 Māori in Taranaki owned 800 000 hectares while the original New Zealand Company purchase for New Plymouth was just 1400 hectares.
  
• 
  In one of his dispatches, Gore Browne alleged that Māori had far more land than they needed and that the settlers would get hold of it “recte si possint, si non quocunque modo” (“fairly, if possible, if not, then by any means at all”).
  
• 
  The establishing of Kingitanga in 1858 was viewed by most Pākehā as a land-holding movement. This was a time when the populations of Auckland and New Plymouth were increasing. Governor Thomas Gore Browne believed that Māori needed to be taught a “sharp lesson”.
  
• 
  Governor Gore Browne believed the rumours that Māori who wanted to sell land were being intimidated by a pupuri whenua land league. In 1859, he had announced that any Māori wanting to sell land were able to do so without the consent of their chiefs. (This was a direct breach of Article Two of the Treaty, which affirmed chiefly authority ).
  
• 
  Governor Gore Browne saw the dispute over the sale of the Waitara block as an issue of sovereignty. When Te Teira offered the land for sale, the paramount chief of the area, Wiremu Kingi Te Rangitake, objected. He argued that Te Teira didn’t have the mana or support needed to make the sale.
  

• 
  When the survey began, Wiremu Kingi’s supporters disrupted it by pulling out the survey pegs.
  
• 
  In February, Governor Gore Browne declared martial law and troops were sent in from New Plymouth. Waitara was occupied by troops, and Kingi’s pa Te Kohia was bombarded. The Te Ati Awa garrison abandoned the pa with little loss.
  
• 
  Wiremu Kingi had not initially supported the establishment of Kingitanga, but he now sought an alliance with Te Wherowhero. Kingitanga sent a force of volunteers to support Kingi in Taranaki. This was significant as it showed that Kingitanga would support Māori landholders in their disputes against the British. (Governor Grey later used Kingitanga’s involvement in the Taranaki War as part of his excuse to invade the Waikato).
  
• 
  On 27 June 1860, Te Ati Awa and their allies inflicted some heavy losses on British troops at the twin pa of Puketakauere and Onukukaitara near Waitara. On 6 November the British troops gained their first success when they drove Ngāti Haua and Waikato from their defences at Mahoetahi.
  
• 
  In July 1860, Governor Gore Browne convened the Kohimarama Conference, at which he attempted to undermine Wiremu Kingi and the Kingitanga (neither Kingi nor Te Wherowhero were invited) by having other North Island chiefs reaffirm aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi.
  
• 
  For almost three months, early in 1861, General Pratt led more than 2000 men on an advance by the means of a sap (trench) and a series of redoubts against Māori occupying pa and rifle pits at the bush edge on the bank of the Waitara River.
  
• 
  The conflict remained unresolved as neither side was strong enough to defeat the other, and a ceasefire was agreed in March 1861. Māori continued to control the Tataraimaka block but lost control of some of the land around Waitara.
  
• 
  When Governor Grey reoccupied the Tataraimaka block before giving up land at Waitara, there were further incidents around New Plymouth
  

• 
  Tension continued in the late 1860s with the rise of the Pai Marire prophetic movement which led to an attempt to assert sovereignty through a return to traditional Māori values mingled with aspects of the Old Testament
  
• 
  Te Ua Haumene was the founder and prophet of the Pai Mārire (Hauhau) Church. He claimed that he had had a revelation from God in which he was appointed to lead Māori to sovereignty over New Zealand. When some of his followers ambushed a government patrol in Taranaki, Te Ua was presented with the victims’ heads. This incident was followed by a major war between followers of Pai Mārire and kūpapa on Moutoa Island in the Whanganui River. Later, some followers of Pai Mārire killed a missionary, Carl Volkner, on the East Coast. Te Ua was essentially a religious leader but it was very difficult for him to contain his followers within the spiritual boundaries that he established.
  
• 
  Another way that Māori in Taranaki attempted to assert sovereignty was through the actions of Tïtokowaru who responded to the creeping confiscation of land in South Taranaki with a hit and run guerrilla campaign against Pākehā settlers.
  

• 
  Titokowaru may have intended to undertake a peaceful response to land alienation - At the beginning of 1867 Titokowaru began his great peace campaign, symbolised by his proclamation: 'This is the year of the daughters, this is the year of the lamb', but war broke out again on 9 June 1868 when, on his orders, Nga Ruahine killed three military settlers on disputed land at Ketemarae. He conducted these raids from his base at Te Ngutu o te Manu (the beak of the bird). He also goaded the Armed Constabulary into attacking him on his own ground. He staged a remarkable victory at Te Ngutu o te Manu on September 7, 1868. This is the battle in which Von Tempsky was killed and McDonnell’s reputation shattered.
  
• 
  Tïtokowaru went on to defeat McDonnell’s successor, Whitmore at Moturoa, but on the verge of an attack on Wanganui, his warriors deserted him, possibly because of an affair that Tïtokowaru may have been having with another chief’s wife.
  

• 
  Events at Parihaka were a further significant way in which Māori addressed the question of sovereignty through a renunciation of fighting for a non-aggressive method of resolving the alienation of land.
  
• 
  Located halfway between Mount Taranaki and the Tasman Sea, Parihaka became the centre of a peaceful resistance movement from the mid-1860s. The movement involved not only other Taranaki tribes, but also Māori from around the country. The confiscation of Taranaki Māori land prompted Te Whiti-o-Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi to develop a campaign to resist European settlement on confiscated land.
  
• 
  Parihaka was created in 1867. Te Whiti and Tohu Kakahi and their 600 followers developed a community centred on religion and peace. It was a model village built on hard work, enterprise and communal responsibility. Though they did reject some Pākehā institutions, the spiritual leadership provided by Te Whiti and Tohu was very positive. The aim of Te Whiti and Tohu was to save the land and restore the self-respect of the people. Energy was directed into developing large-scale cultivations of maize, potatoes, tobacco and vegetables.
  
• 
  Parihaka was established on land that had been confiscated but not yet occupied. Te Whiti felt that the confiscation of the land was unfair. He was angered by the government’s failure to keep its promise to set aside reserves for the Māori people.
  
• 
  In 1879, the government planned to open up the Waimate Plains to Pākehā farmers. Surveying began on confiscated land on the Waimate Plain without setting aside Māori reserves. The surveyors ran their projected roads right through the cultivations of the Parihaka settlement.
  
• 
  In response, Te Whiti devised a policy to put pressure on the government. Under the leadership of Te Whiti and Tohu Kakahi, Parihaka Māori embarked upon a ploughing campaign to protest against European settlement on confiscated Māori land. This campaign used non-violent methods. Te Whiti’s followers disrupted these surveys by ploughing and fencing land occupied by settlers. Each day, two men went out from Parihaka with a team of horses to plough up the land of Pākehā farmers nearby. Many were arrested and held without trial in the South Island. As each pair was arrested, another two were sent out. The protests continued, and more took part. They also cut the numbers off survey pegs and pulled them out and erected fences across the roads.
  
• 
  In 1881, the West Coast Settlements Act was passed, making it legal to jail protestors without trial for up to two years. The jails could not hold the prisoners, and most were released.
  
• 
  Parihaka became a concern to the government as it was seen as a place that could reignite Māori opposition to Pākehā progress. Hazel Riseborough wrote ‘Parihaka had become a haven for the dispossessed and disillusioned from the length and breadth of the coast, and as far away as North Auckland, the King Country, Wairarapa and the Chatham Islands.’
  
• 
  Te Whiti was turned into a bogeyman by the Pākehā press. He was seen not just as a raving religious fanatic but also as a threat to the stability of the whole country. According to the press, he was preparing for rebellion against the Queen. The presence of Titokowaru in the Parihaka settlement was enough to make alarm bells ring in the minds of the Taranaki settlers, who were strongly represented in Parliament by leading politicians like Harry Atkinson.
  
• 
  Parihaka became a symbol for many Māori, and its people received food and other supplies from many tribes throughout the country – including those as far away as the Chatham Islands.
  
• 
  The invasion decision was based on the imminent return to New Zealand of Governor Gordon, who would never have agreed to the attack. Judge Prendergast signed the invasion order. (Dick Scott, p 100)
  
• 
  In October 1881, a government proclamation demanded that Te Whiti and Tohu step aside and accept the confiscations or risk war. Te Whiti must be taught a lesson and be made to recognise the dominance of the Pākehā. Rumours that Parihaka was fortified also inflamed Pākehā fears.
  
• 
  On the morning of 5 November 1881 (while the Governor was out of the country), some 1 600 volunteers and Armed Constabulary invaded the settlement. More than 2 000 villagers sat quietly on the marae and put up no resistance as a group of singing children greeted the force led by Native Minister John Bryce. Bryce had described Parihaka as ‘that headquarters of fanaticism and disaffection’. He was a local MP and had fought in the war against Titokowaru.