Tuberculosis Screening
Updated: Jan 17, 2014
Overview
Selecting Individuals to Screen
Selecting a Test
Tuberculin Skin Test
Interferon-gamma Release Assays
Follow-up
Show All
Tables
References
Overview
Latent tuberculosis infection is a condition in which a person is infected
withMycobacterium tuberculosis -complex but does not have
active
tuberculosis
disease. People with latent tuberculosis infection are at risk of
progressing to active tuberculosis. Therefore, it is essential that individuals at high
risk of progression to active tuberculosis are identified through screening.
Nearly one-third of the world’s population has latent tuberculosis infection.
[1]
Risk of
progression varies based on age and comorbid conditions.
[2]
The greatest risk for
progression to active disease occurs within the first 2 years of infection, during which
time about 5% of individuals progress to tuberculosis disease. After the first 2 years
following infection, the risk of developing active disease over an individual’s lifetime
is 5-10%.
[3]
There is no direct test to detect the presence of latent tuberculosis infection in an
individual. The screening tests for latent tuberculosis infection rely on measurements
of adaptive host immune responses to the bacteria. The tuberculin skin test
measures an individual’s response to a solution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis -
complex antigens, known as purified protein derivative.
[4, 5]
Until the early 2000s, the tuberculin skin test was the standard for screening for
latent tuberculosis infection.
[6]
However, the test has limitations, including precise
intradermal administration, the need for a follow-up visit to interpret the results,
specific criteria for interpretation of the results, and the possibility of false-positive
results with Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination or other environmental
mycobacteria.
[6]
Because of this, interferon-gamma release assays are gaining
acceptance as an alternative screening test.
[7, 8]
Because interferon-gamma release
assays are performed in the laboratory, requiring one blood draw and only one
patient visit to obtain results, they are significantly distinct from the traditional
tuberculin skin test.
Selecting Individuals to Screen
The selection of individuals for screening of latent tuberculosis infection should be
based on clinical, social, and environmental risk factors. Screening should be
performed with the intent to treat positive test results.
There are two main categories of people who should be screened for latent
tuberculosis infection: 1) individuals at risk for exposure to persons with active
tuberculosis disease, and 2) individuals with conditions or other factors associated
with progression from latent tuberculosis infection to tuberculosis disease.
[9]
Individuals at risk for exposure to persons with tuberculosis disease include the
following
[10]
:
Known close contacts of a person with infectious tuberculosis disease
Immigrants from
tuberculosis-endemic regions of the world
(e.g., Africa, Asia,
Eastern Europe, Latin America, and Russia)
Employees or residents of facilities or institutions with people who are at high
risk for tuberculosis, such as hospitals, homeless shelters, correctional facilities,
nursing homes, or residential facilities for patients with acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome
Conditions and other factors associated with progression from latent tuberculosis
infection to tuberculosis disease include the following
[10]
:
Human immunodeficiency virus
infection
Receipt of immunosuppressive therapy, such as tumor necrosis factor
antagonists, systemic corticosteroid doses ≥15 mg of prednisone per day, or organ
transplantation
Recently infected with M. tuberculosis within the past 2 years
Radiographic evidence of prior healed tuberculosis
History of prior untreated or inadequately treated tuberculosis
Low body weight (10% below ideal body weight)
Infants and children under 5 years old with positive tuberculosis test
Cigarette smoking
Drug abuse, including alcohol abuse and injection drug use
Silicosis
Diabetes mellitus
Chronic renal failure or on hemodialysis
Gastrectomy
Jejunoileal bypass
Solid organ transplantation
Head and neck cancer
Lung cancer
Individuals with a prior positive test or who have had a severe reaction to tuberculin
skin test in the past, including skin necrosis, blistering, ulceration, or anaphylactic
shock,
[9]
should not be screened again.
Selecting a Test
There is considerable controversy regarding the appropriate test to use for
tuberculosis screening. Data on interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) is
evolving and its validity in specific patient populations is not as well established as
the tuberculin skin test (TST). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) issued updated guidelines in 2010 evaluating the role of screening for
tuberculosis with IGRAs.
[6]
Overall, both IGRAs and TSTs have been endorsed.
IGRAs may be used in place of TSTs whenever testing is indicated. The guidelines
also indicate preferred tests in certain situations, but routine use of either TST or
IGRAs is acceptable practice.
IGRAs are recommended for individuals who may not return for a TST reading, such
as those with a history of drug abuse or who are homeless. IGRAs are also
recommended for individuals who have received Bacille Calmette-Guerin
vaccination. TST is the preferred test for children younger than 5 years.
The CDC recommends against routine use of simultaneous or sequential TST and
IGRA for the same patient, although there are exceptions. For example, if the initial
TST is negative, repeat testing with IGRA (or vice versa) can be performed if the
patient is at high risk for infection, progression, or poor outcome or if there is a high
clinical suspicion for active tuberculosis. A positive result from a second test
increases the sensitivity for detecting tuberculosis in higher risk patients, although
multiple negative tests cannot exclude a diagnosis of tuberculosis. Sequential
testing also can be considered if the initial test is borderline or indeterminate.
In the setting of multiple tests, clinicians may be faced with discordant findings (i.e.,
one positive test and one negative test). The CDC recommends an individualized
approach with careful consideration to the quality of each test, the patient’s specific
response to testing (e.g., size of induration or values for antigens, positive and
negative controls on the IGRA) and the risk of testing or treating a given patient.
For patients who are at low risk for infection and progression, deeming a positive
result to be falsely positive is reasonable given the overall low incidence of
tuberculosis in the United States. TST reactions of less than 15 mm in size in
otherwise healthy, low-risk patients who have received a Bacille Calmette-Guerin
vaccination and who have a negative IGRA can be considered to be a false-positive
TST reaction. However, for patients who are at high risk of acquisition or progression
of tuberculosis, one positive test result can be considered as evidence for infection.
Differing conclusions are presented in the guidelines developed by Canadian, U.K.,
and U.S. expert panels regarding the use of IGRAs.
[11]
Given the evolving data and
the varied public health priorities, this assessment is not surprising. The choice of a
specific test should be based on the local epidemiology of tuberculosis as well as
the risk factors of each individual.
Tuberculin Skin Test
Technique
The tuberculin skin test (TST) measures an individual’s cell-mediated immune
response to a solution of more than 200 M. tuberculosis complex antigens, known
as purified protein derivative (PPD).
Testing equipment for the TST includes a purified protein derivative solution,
tuberculin syringe, 27-gauge needle, and alcohol swabs.
PPD solution should be stored in the dark and refrigerated at 36-46°F.
[9]
To minimize
reduction in potency by adsorption, the PPD solution should not be transferred from
one container to another.
In the United States, 5 tuberculin units (TUs) are used, whereas in most European
countries, 2 TUs are used.
[12]
Skin tests should be given immediately after the syringe
is filled.
The Mantoux technique is the standard method of administration of PPD solution, in
which intradermal injection of tuberculin material on the inner surface of the forearm
is used.
[9]
The test is performed as followed:
Inject 0.1 mL of 5 TU PPD solution intradermally on the volar surface of the
lower arm using a 27-gauge needle and tuberculin syringe.
Produce a wheal 6-10 mm in diameter.
The arm in which the test was administered is noted.
The skin test should be read 48-72 hours after administration.
The area of induration (not erythema) is measured in millimeters in the axis
perpendicular to the long axis of the arm.
Interpretation
The immune reaction to administered antigen is a type 4 delayed (cellular)
hypersensitivity reaction. T cells primed by the prior infection are recruited to the test
area, where they release lymphokines leading to local vasodilatation, edema, fibrin
deposition, and recruitment of other inflammatory cells leading to induration of the
involved skin.
[13]
Because this test is an indirect measurement of latent tuberculosis infection, it has
certain limitations. Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine, which protects infants and
young children from meningeal and miliary tuberculosis,
[14]
may affect results. The
vaccine is not offered in the United States, but foreign-born residents who have
been vaccinated may develop a positive PPD reaction. Because it is difficult to
distinguish whether the reaction is a true-positive result(indicating latent tubculosis
infection) or a false-positive result (indicating history of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin
vaccination), individuals with known or suspected Bacillus Calmette-Guerin
vaccination with a positive PPD should be treated as if they have a positive test
result.
[15, 16]
Some individuals with latent tubculosis infection have an initial negative skin test
reaction when tested years after infection because the TST becomes less sensitive
over time. For individuals who have a negative initial TST, a second test should be
administered (two-step testing) using the same methods and interpretation
paradigm. The initial TST serves as a boost to stimulate a response.
Sensitivity and specificity of the TST is influenced by different cutoff values for
positivity in different clinical settings. Table 1 shows the degree of induration required
for a positive test in selected population groups.
[9]
Table 1. Interpretation of tuberculin skin test results
(Open Table in a new window)
Degree of induration required for a positive
result
Patient population
>5 mm
Individuals with HIV infection
Individuals who have had dlose contact with a patient with infectious tuberculosis
Individuals with chest radiographs that are consistent with prior untreated tuberculosis (fibrotic changes)
Organ transplant recipients
Other immunosuppressed patients (taking the equivalent of >15 mg/day of prednisone or tumor necrosis factor
antagonists)
>10 mm
Recent immigrants (within the last 5 years) from tuberculosis-endemic countries
Injection drug users
Residents or employees of congregate settings (e.g., prisons, long-term care facilities for the elderly, homeless
shelters)
Mycobacteriology laboratory personnel
Children younger than 4 years
Infants, children, and adolescents who have been exposed to high-risk adults
>15 mm
Individuals with no known risk factors for tuberculosis
Table 2 lists false-positive and false-negative reactions of which the clinician should
be aware.
[9, 17]
Table 2. Causes of false-positive and false-negative reactions for the tuberculin skin
test
(Open Table in a new window)
False-positive reactions
False-negative reactions
Infection with non-tuberculosis mycobacteria
Cutaneous anergy due to a lack of an appropriate immune response (e.g.,
immunocompromised or suppressed individual)
Prior Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccination (although not a
contraindication to tuberculin skin testing)
Recent tuberculosis infection (within 8-10 weeks)
Incorrect method of administration
Very old tuberculosis infection
Incorrect interpretation of reaction
Very young age (< 6 months old)
Incorrect antigen used
Recent live-virus vaccination (e.g., measles, smallpox)
Overwhelming tuberculosis disease
Certain viral illnesses (e.g., measles, chicken pox)
Incorrect method of administration
Incorrect interpretation of reaction
Interferon-gamma Release Assays
Two interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) are currently approved by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States:
QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube test (QFT-GIT)
T-SPOT.TB test (T-Spot)
QuantiFERON-TB Gold In-Tube Test
The QFT-GIT uses three specialized blood collection tubes, each holding 1 mL of
blood:
Grey: Negative control
Red: Tuberculosis antigens
Purple: Mitogen control
Immediately after blood collection, all tubes of blood must be vigorously shaken 10
times to ensure the entire inner surface of the tube has been coated with blood.
Appropriate mixing is essential to ensure the antigens embedded in the tube walls
interact with the blood.
[8]
Tubes must be incubated within 16 hours at 37°C for 16-24 hours. After incubation,
an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is performed on separated plasma
using a specially developed QFT-GIT microwell plate. The optical density is
measured and a software algorithm using FDA-approved cutoff values compares the
negative control, positive control, and the antigen wells.
[8, 6]
A qualitative response of
positive, negative, or indeterminate is generated from these values.
Indeterminate results may occur for several reasons. The positive control optical
density may be below the threshold, indicating the patient’s blood did not react with
the mitogen and suggesting an anergic response. The negative control optical
density may exceed the threshold value, suggesting high background interferon-
gamma levels.
Common clinical reasons for indeterminate results include relative anergy and
immunosuppresion (specifically limiting interferon gamma production in the positive
control), extremes of age, active infection, or antimycobacterial treatment.
[6,
18]
Technical reasons for indeterminate results include prolonged transit time after
draw and before incubation, insufficient mixing, and incomplete washing of the
ELISA plates.
[8, 18]
T-SPOT.TB Test
For the T-Spot test, whole blood is collected in lithium heparin or sodium citrate
anticoagulated tubes (or specialized Leucosep or Cell Preparation Tubes), holding 8
mL of blood. Anticoagulated or nonanticoagulated ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
tubes are inappropriate for testing and should not be used.
After blood is collected, samples should be processed within 8 hours of collection
unless processed with T-Cell Xtend reagent, which extends the hold time up to 32
hours after venipuncture.
In the laboratory, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are separated,
washed, and counted. After preparation, isolated PBMCs are placed into a specially
prepared microtiter plate and exposed to the positive control, a negative control, and
two tuberculosis antigens. The positive control contains phytohemagglutinin, which
nonspecifically stimulates T-cell production of interferon-gamma.
After a 16- to 20-hour incubation period, secreted interferon-gamma binds to the
antibodies coating the base of the plate. A second antibody conjugated to alkaline
phosphatase binds to the interferon-gamma and a final substrate is added, which is
cleaved by the enzyme to form an insoluble spot on the plate. These spots are
counted and then interpreted using FDA-approved interpretation criteria.
[6, 19]
Notably,
the FDA approved a “borderline” criterion, which increases the specificity and
sensitivity of the assay by reducing the false-positive and false-negative results near
the breakpoint.
As with the QFT-GIT, indeterminate results can occur because of either a lack of
positive control response or a high background level of interferon-gamma. Both
technical and clinical factors can lead to indeterminate results, including improper
testing procedures and washings, as well as patient anergy or immunosuppression.
Follow-up
Individuals with positive screening result need further testing to determine if positivity
is due to latent tuberculosis infection or active tuberculosis disease. A clinical
evaluation and chest radiograph should be performed on all patients with a positive
screening test to assess for active tuberculosis disease. If the patient does not have
clinical signs or symptoms and the chest radiograph does not have findings
suggestive of active tuberculosis, the patient should be diagnosed with latent
tuberculosis infection and offered a treatment course to diminish the risk of
progressing to active tuberculosis.
Primary Tuberculosis Imaging
Updated: Jul 30, 2013
Overview
Radiography
Computed Tomography
Show All
Multimedia Library
References
Overview
Preferred examination
If patients with primary tuberculosis undergo imaging, a conventional chest
radiograph may be sufficient for diagnosis in the appropriate clinical setting.
In patients with progressive primary or postprimary tuberculosis, computed
tomography scanning is often performed, in addition to chest radiography. Magnetic
resonance imaging may be used to evaluate complications of thoracic disease, such
as the extent of thoracic wall involvement with empyema, but is of limited value in
the evaluation of patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.
Typically, ultrasonography is not useful in imaging pulmonary disease. This modality
may be used for thoracentesis guidance or to evaluate the pericardium for
secondary tuberculous involvement.
Angiography is not used in the diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis. Angiographic
techniques, such as bronchial arteriography and embolization in patients with
hemoptysis, may be used to treat the complications of cavitary pulmonary
tuberculosis.
Patients with postprimary tuberculosis may also undergo bronchoscopy to evaluate
endobronchial disease and to obtain sputum specimens for microbacteriologic
cultures.
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Mycobacteria
Traditionally, the term tuberculosis has been used to indicate infections caused
byMycobacterium tuberculosis and M bovis; however, a multitude of causative
mycobacteria are recognized. A case of primary pulmonary tuberculosis is depicted
in the image below.
Young male patient with fever and cough has a focal opacity in the left lower lobe that
looks like a pneumonia. This is a case of primary tuberculosis in an adult.
Tuberculosis may involve multiple organs such as the lung, liver, spleen, kidney,
brain, and bone. In endemic regions, the normal host immune response may be
sufficient to contain the infection and prevent clinical presentation. Uncontrolled or
uncontained infection may result in great morbidity and mortality.
Limitations of techniques
Conventional radiography is limited in its sensitivity and specificity. As many as 15%
of patients with primary tuberculosis have normal chest radiographic findings.
Clinical suspicion must remain high for prompt diagnosis in these individuals. Chest
radiographic results are not specific for tuberculosis, and other entities must remain
in the differential diagnosis,
[6, 7, 8]
Intervention
Interventional radiologists may be consulted to perform diagnostic and therapeutic
bronchial artery studies, and interventional radiologic techniques may be used to
confirm the diagnosis with percutaneous lymph node aspiration or biopsy to obtain
material for culture, cytologic, or histologic studies.
Radiologists may perform stent placement with fluoroscopic and/or CT guidance in
collaboration with the bronchoscopist, and they often obtain fluid for evaluation by
performing ultrasonography- or CT-guided thoracentesis.
Radiography
The radiographic characteristics of primary and postprimary pulmonary tuberculosis
are displayed in the section images below.
Young male patient with fever and cough has a focal opacity in the left lower lobe that
looks like a pneumonia. This is a case of primary tuberculosis in an adult.
Posteroanterior chest radiograph in a young patient shows a right upper lobe and right lower lobe consolidation and a small
pleural effusion on the right side.
A middle-aged man presents with a cough and fever
lasting several weeks. Posteroanterior chest radiograph shows a prominent paratracheal area on the right,
lymphadenopathy, a cavitary opacity in the right upper lobe, and a focal consolidation in the middle lung zone on the right.
The patient was ultimately found to have primary progressive tuberculosis.
Pulmonary imaging findings in individuals with primary tuberculosis are nonspecific.
[9,
10, 11]
Common findings include segmental or lobar airspace consolidation, ipsilateral
hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy, and/or pleural effusion. Atelectasis may
occur in primary pulmonary tuberculosis, often as a consequence of tuberculous
airway involvement.
Note that chest radiographic findings may be normal in as many as 15% of patients
with primary pulmonary tuberculosis.
Dostları ilə paylaş: |