Cutaneous TB
The incidence of cutaneous TB appears low. In areas such as India or China, where
TB prevalence is high, cutaneous manifestations of TB (overt infection or the
presence of tuberculids) have been found in less than 0.1% of individuals seen in
dermatology clinics.
Ocular TB
TB can affect any structure in the eye and typically presents as a granulomatous
process. Keratitis, iridocyclitis, intermediate uveitis, retinitis, scleritis, and orbital
abscess are within the spectrum of ocular disease. Choroidal tubercles and
choroiditis are the most common ocular presentations of TB. Adnexal or orbital
disease may be seen with preauricular lymphadenopathy. Because of the wide
variability in the disease process, presenting complaints will vary.
Most often, patients will complain of blurry vision that may or may not be associated
with pain and red eye. In the rare case of orbital disease, proptosis, double vision, or
extraocular muscle motility restriction may be the presenting complaint. Preseptal
cellulitis in children with spontaneous draining fistula may also occur. In cases of
both pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB, there may be ocular findings without ocular
complaints.
In patients with confirmed active pulmonary or active, nonocular extrapulmonary TB,
ocular incidence ranges from 1.4-5.74%. In HIV patients, the incidence of ocular TB
may be higher, with a reported prevalence of from 2.8-11.4%.
Patient education
Patient information on TB can be found at the following sites:
CDC
Tuberculosis (TB)
World Health Organization
Tuberculosis
For patient education information, see the
Infections Center
, as well as
Tuberculosis
.
Pathophysiology
Infection with M tuberculosis results most commonly through exposure of the lungs
or mucous membranes to infected aerosols. Droplets in these aerosols are 1-5 μm
in diameter; in a person with active pulmonary TB, a single cough can generate
3000 infective droplets, with as few as 10 bacilli needed to initiate infection.
When inhaled, droplet nuclei are deposited within the terminal airspaces of the lung.
The organisms grow for 2-12 weeks, until they reach 1000-10,000 in number, which
is sufficient to elicit a cellular immune response that can be detected by a reaction to
the tuberculin skin test.
Mycobacteria are highly antigenic, and they promote a vigorous, nonspecific
immune response. Their antigenicity is due to multiple cell wall constituents,
including glycoproteins, phospholipids, and wax D, which activate Langerhans cells,
lymphocytes, and polymorphonuclear leukocytes
When a person is infected with M tuberculosis, the infection can take 1 of a variety
of paths, most of which do not lead to actual TB. The infection may be cleared by the
host immune system or suppressed into an inactive form called latent tuberculosis
infection (LTBI), with resistant hosts controlling mycobacterial growth at distant foci
before the development of active disease. Patients with LTBI cannot spread TB.
The lungs are the most common site for the development of TB; 85% of patients
with TB present with pulmonary complaints. Extrapulmonary TB can occur as part of
a primary or late, generalized infection. An extrapulmonary location may also serve
as a reactivation site; extrapulmonary reactivation may coexist with pulmonary
reactivation.
The most common sites of extrapulmonary disease are as follows (the pathology of
these lesions is similar to that of pulmonary lesions):
Mediastinal, retroperitoneal, and cervical (scrofula) lymph nodes - The most
common site of tuberculous lymphadenitis (scrofula) is in the neck, along the
sternocleidomastoid muscle; it is usually unilateral and causes little or no pain;
advanced cases of tuberculous lymphadenitis may suppurate and form a draining
sinus
Vertebral bodies
Adrenals
Meninges
GI tract
Infected end organs typically have high regional oxygen tension (as in the kidneys,
bones, meninges, eyes, and choroids, and in the apices of the lungs). The principal
cause of tissue destruction from M tuberculosis infection is related to the organism's
ability to incite intense host immune reactions to antigenic cell wall proteins.
Uveitis caused by TB is the local inflammatory manifestation of a previously
acquired primary systemic tubercular infection. There is some debate with regard to
whether molecular mimicry, as well as a nonspecific response to noninfectious
tubercular antigens, provides a mechanism for active ocular inflammation in the
absence of bacterial replication.
TB lesions
The typical TB lesion is an epithelioid granuloma with central caseation necrosis.
The most common site of the primary lesion is within alveolar macrophages in
subpleural regions of the lung. Bacilli proliferate locally and spread through the
lymphatics to a hilar node, forming the Ghon complex.
Early tubercles are spherical, 0.5- to 3-mm nodules with 3 or 4 cellular zones
demonstrating the following features:
A central caseation necrosis
An inner cellular zone of epithelioid macrophages and Langhans giant cells
admixed with lymphocytes
An outer cellular zone of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and immature
macrophages
A rim of fibrosis (in healing lesions)
Initial lesions may heal and the infection become latent before symptomatic disease
occurs. Smaller tubercles may resolve completely. Fibrosis occurs when hydrolytic
enzymes dissolve tubercles and larger lesions are surrounded by a fibrous capsule.
Such fibrocaseous nodules usually contain viable mycobacteria and are potential
lifelong foci for reactivation or cavitation. Some nodules calcify or ossify and are
seen easily on chest radiographs.
Tissues within areas of caseation necrosis have high levels of fatty acids, low pH,
and low oxygen tension, all of which inhibit growth of the tubercle bacillus.
If the host is unable to arrest the initial infection, the patient develops progressive,
primary TB with tuberculous pneumonia in the lower and middle lobes of the lung.
Purulent exudates with large numbers of acid-fast bacilli can be found in sputum and
tissue. Subserosal granulomas may rupture into the pleural or pericardial spaces
and create serous inflammation and effusions.
With the onset of the host immune response, lesions that develop around
mycobacterial foci can be either proliferative or exudative. Both types of lesions
develop in the same host, since infective dose and local immunity vary from site to
site.
Proliferative lesions develop where the bacillary load is small and host cellular
immune responses dominate. These tubercles are compact, with activated
macrophages admixed, and are surrounded by proliferating lymphocytes, plasma
cells, and an outer rim of fibrosis. Intracellular killing of mycobacteria is effective,
and the bacillary load remains low.
Exudative lesions predominate when large numbers of bacilli are present and host
defenses are weak. These loose aggregates of immature macrophages, neutrophils,
fibrin, and caseation necrosis are sites of mycobacterial growth. Without treatment,
these lesions progress and infection spreads.
Etiology
TB is caused by M tuberculosis, a slow-growing obligate aerobe and a facultative
intracellular parasite. The organism grows in parallel groups called cords (as seen in
the image below). It retains many stains after decoloration with acid-alcohol, which is
the basis of the acid-fast stains used for pathologic identification.
Acid-fast bacillus smear showing characteristic cording in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Mycobacteria, such as M tuberculosis, are aerobic, non–spore-forming, nonmotile,
facultative, curved intracellular rods measuring 0.2-0.5 μm by 2-4 μm. Their cell
walls contain mycolic, acid-rich, long-chain glycolipids and phospholipoglycans
(mycocides) that protect mycobacteria from cell lysosomal attack and also retain red
basic fuchsin dye after acid rinsing (acid-fast stain).
Transmission
Humans are the only known reservoir for M tuberculosis. The organism is spread
primarily as an airborne aerosol from an individual who is in the infectious stage of
TB (although transdermal and GI transmission have been reported).
In immunocompetent individuals, exposure to M tuberculosis usually results in a
latent/dormant infection. Only about 5% of these individuals later show evidence of
clinical disease. Alterations in the host immune system that lead to decreased
immune effectiveness can allow M tuberculosis organisms to reactivate, with
tubercular disease resulting from a combination of direct effects from the replicating
infectious organism and from subsequent inappropriate host immune responses to
tubercular antigens.
Molecular typing of M tuberculosis isolates in the United States by restriction
fragment-length polymorphism analysis suggests more than one third of new patient
occurrences of TB result from person-to-person transmission. The remainder results
from reactivation of latent infection.
Verhagen et al demonstrated that large clusters of TB are associated with an
increased number of tuberculin skin test–positive contacts, even after adjusting for
other risk factors for transmission.
[22]
The number of positive contacts was
significantly lower for index cases with isoniazid-resistant TB compared with index
cases with fully-susceptible TB. This suggests that some TB strains may be more
transmissible than other strains and that isoniazid resistance is associated with
lower transmissibility.
Extrapulmonary spread
Because of the ability of M tuberculosis to survive and proliferate within
mononuclear phagocytes, which ingest the bacterium, M tuberculosis is able to
invade local lymph nodes and spread to extrapulmonary sites, such as the bone
marrow, liver, spleen, kidneys, bones, and brain, usually via hematogenous routes.
Although mycobacteria are spread by blood throughout the body during initial
infection, primary extrapulmonary disease is rare except in immunocompromised
hosts. Infants, older persons, or otherwise immunosuppressed hosts are unable to
control mycobacterial growth and develop disseminated (primary miliary) TB.
Patients who become immunocompromised months to years after primary infection
also can develop late, generalized disease.
Risk factors
The following factors help to determine whether a TB infection is likely to be
transmitted:
Number of organisms expelled
Concentration of organisms
Length of exposure time to contaminated air
Immune status of the exposed individual
Infected persons living in crowded or closed environments pose a particular risk to
noninfected persons. Approximately 20% of household contacts develop infection
(positive tuberculin skin test). Microepidemics have occurred in closed environments
such as submarines and on transcontinental flights. Populations at high risk for
acquiring the infection also include hospital employees, inner-city residents, nursing
home residents, and prisoners.
The following factors increase an individual’s risk of acquiring active tuberculosis:
HIV infection
Intravenous (IV) drug abuse
Alcoholism
Diabetes mellitus (3-fold risk increase)
Silicosis
Immunosuppressive therapy
Tumor necrosis factor–alpha (TNF-α) antagonists
Cancer of the head and neck
Hematologic malignancies
End-stage renal disease
Intestinal bypass surgery or gastrectomy
Chronic malabsorption syndromes
Low body weight - In contrast,
obesity
in elderly patients has been associated
with a lower risk for active pulmonary TB
[23]
Smoking - Smokers who develop TB should be encouraged to stop smoking
to decrease the risk of relapse
[24]
Age below 5 years
TNF antagonists and steroids
Treatment with tumor necrosis factor–alpha (TNF-α) antagonists, which is used for
rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and several other autoimmune disorders, has been
associated with a significantly increased risk for TB.
[25]
Reports have included atypical
presentations, extrapulmonary and disseminated disease, and deaths. Patients
scheduled to begin therapy with a TNF-α antagonist should be screened for latent
TB and counseled regarding the risk of TB.
Immunosuppressive therapy includes long-term administration of systemic steroids
(prednisone or its equivalent, given >15 mg/day for ≥4 wk or more) and/or inhaled
steroids. Brassard and colleagues reported that inhaled steroids, in the absence of
systemic steroids, were associated with a relative risk of 1.5 for TB.
[26]
TB in children
In children younger than 5 years, the potential for development of fatal miliary TB or
meningeal TB is a significant concern. Osteoporosis, sclerosis, and bone
involvement are more common in children with TB than in adults with the disease.
The epiphyseal bones can be involved because of their high vascularity.
Children do not commonly infect other children, because they rarely develop cough
and their sputum production is scant. However, cases of child-child and child-adult
TB transmission are well documented. (See
Pediatric Tuberculosis
for complete
information on this topic.)
Genetic factors
The genetics of tuberculosis are quite complex, involving many genes. Some of
those genes involve important aspects of the immune system, while others involve
more specific mechanisms by which the human body interacts with mycobacterium
species. The genes that follow have polymorphisms that are associated with either
susceptibility to or protection from tuberculosis. Additionally, regions such as 8q12-
q13 are associated with increased risk, although an exact mechanism or candidate
gene has not yet been found.
NRAMP1
In a study from Africa, 4 different polymorphisms of the NRAMP1 gene were
associated with an increased risk for TB. Subjects who possessed a certain 2 of
those polymorphisms (located in an intron and in a region upstream from the coding
region) were at particular risk for contracting TB.
[27]
The association of NRAMP1with
risk of TB has been replicated in subsequent studies.
[28, 29]
SP110
The product of this gene interacts with the interferon system and as such is an
important aspect of the immune response. A study of 27 different polymorphisms in
this gene found 3 that were associated with increased risk of TB; 2 of these
polymorphisms were intronic and the third was a missense mutation in exon 11.
[30]
CISH
The product of this gene functions to suppress cytokine signaling, which is important
for inflammatory signaling. One study found that a single-nucleotide polymorphism
upstream from CISH was associated with susceptibility to TB, malaria, and invasive
bacterial disease. The same study found that leukocytes of persons who had the risk
variant for CISH had a decreased response to interleukin 2.
[31]
IRGM
The expression of this gene is induced by interferon, and the product is involved in
the control of intracellular mycobacteria. One study found that homozygosity for a
particular polymorphism in the promoter region of IRGM confers protection against
TB, but only in persons of European ancestry. In vitro analyses showed increased
expression of the IRGM gene product with the promoter variant, further underscoring
the importance of this gene in the immune response to mycobacterial infection.
[32]
IFNG
Interferon gamma is a cytokine that has an important role in the immune response to
intracellular infections, including viral and mycobacterial infections. One particular
polymorphism near a microsatellite in this gene is associated with increased
expression of the IFNG gene and increased production of interferon gamma. An
association study found evidence that this polymorphism was related to protection
against TB.
[33]
IFNGR1
The product of IFNGR1 is part of a heterodimeric receptor for interferon gamma.
This has important implications for the response of this part of the immune system in
the defense against certain infections.
A region of homozygosity in the region of the IFNGR1 gene has been found in a
group of related children in southern Europe who were known to have a
predisposition to mycobacterial infection; this predisposition, which had resulted in
death in three children and chronic mycobacterial infection in a fourth, was felt to be
autosomal recessive.
[34]
Subsequent sequencing of the gene showed a nonsense
mutation that resulted in a nonfunctional gene product.
[35]
TIRAP
The TIRAP gene produces a protein that has several functions in the immune
system. A study of 33 polymorphisms in the TIRAP gene found that heterozygosity
for a serine-to-leucine substitution was associated with protection again invasive
pneumococcal disease, bacteremia, malaria, and TB.
[36]
CD209
The product of the CD209 gene is involved in the function of dendritic cells, which
are involved in the capture of certain microorganisms. An association was found
between susceptibility to TB and a polymorphism upstream from the CD209 gene in
a multiracial South African population.
[37]
Epidemiology
Occurrence in the United States
With the improvement of living conditions and the introduction of effective treatment
(streptomycin) in the late 1940s, the number of patients in the United States
reported to have TB began to steadily decline (126,000 TB patients in 1944; 84,000
in 1953; 22,000 in 1984; 14,000 in 2004), despite explosive growth in the total
population (140 million people in 1946, 185 million in 1960, 226 million in 1980).
On a national level, the incidence of TB is at an all-time low. Since the 1992 TB
resurgence peak in the United States, the number of TB cases reported annually
has decreased by 61%.
In 2011, 10,528 TB cases (a rate of 3.4 cases per 100,000 population) were reported
in the United States, representing a 5.8% decline in the number of reported TB
cases and a 6.4% decline in the case rate, compared with 2010.
[18]
California, New York, Texas, and Florida accounted for half of all TB cases reported
in the United States in 2011. Cases in foreign-born persons made up 62% of the
national case total; foreign-born Hispanics and Asians together represented 80% of
TB cases in foreign-born persons and accounted for 50% of the national case total.
The top five countries of origin for foreign-born persons with TB were Mexico, the
Philippines, India, Vietnam, and China.
Among racial and ethnic groups, the largest percentage of total cases was in Asians
(30%), followed by Hispanics (29%) and non-Hispanic blacks/African Americans
(15%). However, blacks/African Americans represented 39% of TB cases in US-born
persons.
[18]
There were 529 deaths from TB in 2009, the most recent year for which these data
are available.
International statistics
Globally, more than 1 in 3 individuals is infected with TB.
[38]
According to the WHO,
there were 8.8 million incident cases of TB worldwide in 2010, with 1.1 million
deaths from TB among HIV-negative persons and an additional 0.35 million deaths
from HIV-associated TB. In 2009, almost 10 million children were orphaned as a
result of parental deaths caused by TB.
[39]
Overall, the WHO noted the following
[39]
:
The absolute number of TB cases has been falling since 2006 (rather than
rising slowly, as indicated in previous global reports)
TB incidence rates have been falling since 2002 (2 years earlier than
previously suggested)
Estimates of the number of deaths from TB each year have been revised
downwards
The 5 countries with the highest number of incident cases in 2010 were India, China,
South Africa, Indonesia, and Pakistan. India alone accounted for an estimated 26%
of all TB cases worldwide, and China and India together accounted for 38%.
[39]
Race-related demographics
In 2011, only 16% of TB cases in the US occurred in non-Hispanic whites; 84%
occurred in racial and ethnic minorities, as follows
[18]
:
Hispanics - 29%
Asians - 30%
Non-Hispanic blacks/African Americans - 23%
American Indians/native Alaskans - 1%
Native Hawaiians/other Pacific Islanders – 1%
However, race is not clearly an independent risk factor, as foreign-born persons
account for 77% of TB cases among Hispanics and 96% of TB cases among Asians,
but only 29% of TB cases among blacks. This skewed distribution is most likely due
to socioeconomic factors.
Sex-related demographics
Despite the fact that TB rates have declined in both sexes in the United States,
certain differences exist. TB rates in women have declined with age, but in men,
rates have increased with age. In addition, men are more likely than women to have
a positive tuberculin skin test result. The reason for these differences may be social,
rather than biologic, in nature.
The estimated sex prevalence for TB varies by source, from no sex prevalence to a
male-to-female ratio in the United States of 2:1.
Age-related demographics
Higher rates of TB infection are seen in young, nonwhite adults (peak incidence, 25-
40 y) than in white adults. In addition, white adults manifest the disease later (peak
incidence, age 70 y) than do nonwhite persons.
In the United States, more than 60% of TB cases occur in persons aged 25-64
years; however, the age-specific risk is highest in persons older than 65 years.
[39]
TB
is uncommon in children aged 5-15 years.
Prognosis
Full resolution is generally expected with few complications in cases of non-MDR-
and non-XDR-TB, when the drug regimen is completed. Among published studies
involving DOT treatment of TB, the rate of recurrence ranges from 0-14%.
[40]
In
countries with low TB rates, recurrences usually occur within 12 months of treatment
completion and are due to relapse.
[41]
In countries with higher TB rates, most
recurrences after appropriate treatment are probably due to reinfection rather than
relapse.
[42]
Poor prognostic markers include extrapulmonary involvement, an
immunocompromised state, older age, and a history of previous treatment. In a
prospective study of 199 patients with TB in Malawi, 12 (6%) died. Risk factors for
dying were reduced baseline TNF-α response to stimulation (with heat-killed M
tuberculosis), low body mass index, and elevated respiratory rate at TB diagnosis.
[43]
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