B. Daoism: How to Guide the Behavior of the Ruler
1) Harmony in Nature and Advice to the Ruler
Chinese Daoism has grown out of the oldest roots of religion: shamanism.
The shaman was the pre-historic priest, he or she was entrusted with the
task of contacting the immortals in the beyond. This is still the case today
69
Questioned about this practice, a Chinese professor and party spokesperson
compared it to the power of the jury in court proceeding in the U.S.A., which he
saw as limiting the powers of the judiciary as well.
70
Fei Xiaotong, China‘s Gentry. Essays in Rural-Urban Relations. Chicago &
London: The University of Chicago Press, 1953, 35.
71
Ibid.
533
in many places of the world, for instance in Seoul, the capital of South
Korea, where modern city dwellers use the services of the shaman to get
advice and find help from their deceased kin
72
.
But the ancient origins of Daoism lie in the interest of the learned Chinese
person to promote harmony in nature and society, also by giving good
advice to the ruler, and they lie in the interest of the ruler, to avoid death by
living as long as could be imagined, and to even ascend to the heavens like
Elija
73
. without having to undergo physical dying at all
74
. The ruler was
encompassed with an aura that imposed upon the king or emperor
abstinence from action. At the same time, it nourished the expectation that
the man in charge of the country, by mastering the correct cosmology,
could serve as a high priest, guaranteeing harmony in nature and society:
Setting the world at peace lies in ordering the state:
When the ruler treats the elderly as the elderly should be treated,
the people rise up with filiality.
When the ruler treats his elders as elders should be treated
the people rise up with behavior fitting the younger.
When the ruler treats the orphaned with compassion
the people do not turn their backs.
Hence the ruler fulfills the Dao of the carpenter‘s square.
What you detest in your subordinates
do not employ to serve your superior.
What you detest in those who are before you
do not employ to lead those behind you.
What you detest in those who are behind you
do not employ to follow those before you
75
.
This emphasizes the religious overtones of government. The ruler‘s
adherence to the instructions and admonitions of the fundamental book
Tao-te ching
76
by Lao-tze (or Laozi) had the potential of making him the
guardian of the equilibrium of the universe which was to subject itself in
obedience to his priestly person. There are countless translations of the Tao-
72
H. J. Helle, Asientagebuch: Teilnehmende Beobachtung und Feldforschung in
China und Korea. Amazon.com 2018c, 7-29.
73
Bible, 2nd Book of Kings, chapter 2.
74
James Miller, Daoism: A Beginner‘s Guide. Oxford, England 2008, 29.
75
Zengzi, Da Xue.
76
John Lagerwey, Taoist Ritual in Chinese Society and History. New York:
MacMillan, 1987. There the Tao-te ching is quoted frequently.
534
te ching, mentioned by Lagerwey and in many different publications. They
differ in many details because the ancient Chinese original text is often dark
in its meaning and shares its ambiguity with most ancient texts of other
cultures. As an illustration I insert here section 32 in a translation that tries
to combine the various versions available in English and in German:
The Dao is eternal and without a name.
It is original state it is inconspicuous,
Still the world cannot subdue it.
If princes and kings could keep up with it,
All things would come on their own to obey them.
Heaven and earth together would donate sweet dew,
And peoples would agree to live together in peace.-
At the beginning of creation names were assigned,
Once those exist one should acknowledge their limits
He who sees those limits is without danger.
The being of the Dao in the world is like rivers and creeks
flowing into larger rivers and into the ocean.
True to the Daoist idea of the ruler, until almost a century ago, the king of
Korea was expected to provide his people with favorable weather
conditions. He was expected to avoid a draught and guarantee a generous
harvest. Should nature not produce those effects, it was obvious to the
king‘s subjects that he lacked the mandate of heaven. This of course made
his status as ruler highly questionable: It rested on a religious position
vaguely described as that of a high-priest and more adequately comparable
to the highest-ranking shaman in a society, often with the aspiration to
monopolize shamanistic activities.
The high-priest or supreme shaman was, as it were, the Daoist aspect of the
ruler. Over time, an additional component was added: The Confucian
partners of the Daoists who together with the latter were trying to improve
the ruler‘s conduct, introduced the ritual worship of the cosmos by the king
or emperor as celebrating priest: The eternal order of the universe was to be
recognized by ritual subjection of the ruler‘s cosmological liturgy.
In China belief in life everlasting evolved in the following stages. It had
been established faith according to Chinese concepts of the beyond to
consider one‘s deceased ancestors as immortals who lived on eternally.
Ancient folk religion had reserved heaven above for deceased dignitaries,
including ―emperors, noble ancestors, and worthies‖
77
. The dead loved ones
of the common people, on the other hand, were believed to rest peacefully
77
Miller, ibid.
535
in the underworld. The three levels of reality, heaven, this world, and the
underworld, are represented in the Chinese word for king (王 = wang): The
king was seen as the sacred person who had the priestly power to connect
the three levels with each other. The horrible concept of poor souls
suffering in hell did not arrive in China until Buddhism was preached by
missionaries from India.
2) Introducing a New Heaven
Compared to this traditional faith of the three levels, heaven above in
Daoism entailed some innovative aspects. This was the case because
intensive religious activities toward the beyond were initiated and
motivated. Accordingly, Daoist immortals who arrived in the beyond
having circumvented death were believed to be a spiritual being of a
different and very special kind. Thus, the Daoist effect on ancient faith
encouraged a revision of the images of the beyond.
There was no longer the same living and dying for everybody, but rather by
following certain ritual and dietary rules, the Daoist could make himself or
herself qualified to bypass physical death. In addition, certain religious
activities of a devoted Daoist could even deliver the dead members of his or
her own clan from the realm of shadows in the underworld and enable them
to ascend to heaven as well, even after having resided below for some
considerable time.
As a result, heaven ceased to be strictly a location for the mighty ones who
during their lifetime had excelled in political and military power. Instead
heaven increasingly became a gathering place for religious virtuosos of
Daoist persuasion. But Chinese heaven, no matter which version we
consider, is quite different from the heaven of Western religions. Neither
vision of Chinese heaven was to be understood as founded on the dualism
of good and evil. There were clearly ―bad people‖ in heaven as there were
on earth. Thus, inhabitants there did not share any particular level of
goodness, rather what they shared was merely immortality, for better or for
worse. Something similar must have been the case in the Western heaven
prior to the eviction of the devil.
3) Daoist Cosmology
In order to live long and to possibly avoid physical death entirely, the
followers of Daoism needed to be as healthy as possible. Health is not seen
simply as part of individual experience and fate. Instead the personal body
is considered to be integrated into the ―body‖ of the cosmos and designed to
participate in the life of the universe. Accordingly, the actions performed in
the service of health and longevity are embodied in the interactions between
the individual and nature. The person‘s body is alive and engaged in
536
interaction with the cosmos: "Where there is solicitation (kan), there is
response (ying)"
78
.
That principle is at the basis of text explaining the genesis of saintly
personages: A woman is overshadowed by a cloud of red color, or she
swallows a rice corn, and in both cases the outer solicitation causes an inner
response: She will be pregnant and upon additional praying she will later
give birth to a hero who enters this world to create a new order. Her getting
pregnant is not something that happens to her individual body alone, the
entire cosmos proceeds in perfect solidarity with her; the Daoist cosmos is
compared to a gigantic uterus
79
.
Inside the ―uterus of nature‖ too, manifestations of good and of evil grow
side by side. It is up to the human being to provoke, to solicitate, to induce
those developments which he or she hopes will occur. This is typically
achieved by means of the ritual with the help of the Daoist priest. The ritual
is designed to assure the maintenance of the proper order of things. The
cosmos resembles human beings in that it cannot avoid responding.
Because among all the beings populating the earth, humans are endowed
with the most powerful potency, they are also the bearers of enormous
responsibility.
This is a force they received from the beyond. Because of this power that
was laid into their hands, the human beings are themselves masters of their
fate. According to Daoist belief the individual does not depend on
personages in heaven, not on gods, saints, or even ancestors, but rather his
fate is in his or her own hands, because the powers in the beyond gave him
the might to solicitate the proper responses himself. He must thus learn how
to make good use of the potential awarded him. In the case of failure, he or
she has nobody to blame but themselves.
Thus, the human being is seen as empowered, and Daoism is the religion
teaching him or her to strengthen his potency and to lead it to perfection.
The truly complete and rounded person embodies potency that solicitates
responses by merely being there. The classical text describes it thus: He
"accomplishes without having to act"
80
. The fact alone that such a person is
present in a given location is sufficient to result in benign weather
conditions and in a good harvest. That person‘s mere presence increases the
fertility of the soil and causes the fields to respond to him by producing
generously. As a result, there is something sacred about that individual.
78
Lagerwey, op. cit. 6.
79
Ibid.
80
Lao-tze 47, quoted in: Lagerwey, op. cit. 6.
537
Such a person has ordered the energies of his or her body, and the harmony
which he thus arrived at, will then cause the energies of nature to be
balanced in efficiency and harmony also. Potency is of course correctly
associated with fertility. According to Daoist teaching the person is
confronted with the alternative of either converting the nature-given
energies to a large number of offspring or – and this is strictly the male
perspective – to "return the semen to repair the brain"
81
. This means that
retaining male sexual fluids inside the body rather than letting them escape
during orgasm, contributes toward improving the respective man‘s mental
potentials as well as toward extending the duration of his life here on earth.
Summary:
Max Weber‘s question was: What is peculiar about the West? Why did
what happened in Europe have influence in other parts of the world? That
becomes the question of this paper. According to the location and
extension of Alexander‗s Empire, Greece was the Western motherland for
him, while later in the Roman Empire, Greece was an Eastern province.
From Aristotle we learn about the Presocratics: Thales looked for unity and
order in the world. For him and his students their interest is not only
mathematics: They added these areas of inquiry: 1) Measuring and
explaining phenomena in the sky and on earth. 2) Inquiries into nature
rather than more myths. 3) Looking at substance or a stuff as common
foundation of the world. 4) Seeing the world as a self-ordering system.
Pythagoras was famous 1) as an expert on the fate of the soul after death
(He thought that the soul was immortal and went through a series of
reincarnations); he was famous 2) as an expert on religious ritual; 3) as a
wonder-worker who had a thigh of gold and who could be in two places at
the same time; 4) as the founder of a strict way of life that emphasized
dietary restrictions, religious ritual and rigorous self-discipline almost of a
monastery (similar to Daoist hermits in China).
Pythagoras' cosmos was developed in a more scientific and mathematical
direction by his successors in the Pythagorean tradition: Philolaus and
Archytas. Pythagoras succeeded in teaching a new more optimistic view of
the fate of the soul after death and in founding a way of life that was
attractive for its rigor and discipline and that drew to him numerous devoted
followers. Pythagoras believed in reincarnation, according to which human
souls could have been reborn into animals after death.
It is crucial to recognize that most Greeks followed Homer in believing that
the soul was an insubstantial shade, which lived a shadowy existence in the
81
Lagerwey, op. cit. 7.
538
underworld after death. Pythagoras' teachings that the soul was immortal,
that it would have other physical incarnations and might have a good
existence after death were striking innovations that must have had
considerable appeal in comparison to the Homeric view.
Parmenides’ poem began describing a journey he figuratively once made to
the abode of a goddess. His Interest was the principle of unity in the
cosmos. The nature of reality led Parmenides to conclude ―that reality [is],
and must be, a unity in the strictest sense and that any change in it [is]
impossible‖ and therefore that ―the world as perceived by the senses is
unreal‖. Finding reason and sensation to yield wildly contradictory views of
reality, he presumed reason must be preferred and sensory evidence thereby
rejected as altogether deceptive. - In the thinking of Parmenides, we see
here very early philosophical concept on the ideas of unity and being.
Reality is defined as not accessible to the senses. In addition, real is what
does not change: Anything sensual and developing is unreal to Parmenides.
In his theory of change Heraclitus stated: You can never climb into the
same river twice. A river is a process, indeed the same process, though the
river is different now than it was a moment ago. Within the city there is the
unifying role of the nomos. It is the structure of civic law and moral custom
which protects the demos as the city wall protects all the inhabitants of the
city. As with Heraclitus, in the thinking of Socrates too there is the tension
between change and identity. Socrates searched for the concept behind each
object. (Pointing to Plato‘s eternal ideas?)
It was Plato’s intention to overcome the sophists. He rejected the teaching
that there was no general measure for all things and that the human being
was the yard stick for everything else. He found that to be dangerous
thinking because it has the potential of destroying the foundations of ethical
behavior. Therefore, Plato wanted to show that there is indeed a general
measure and rule for ethics and he also wanted to show how to find out
about that. With this in mind, Plato developed the teaching of the eternal
ideas.
When we die, the souls leave, the body. Our soul is to Plato immortal:
Before it became incarnated into a body, the soul was part of the world of
eternal ideas, and so it represents perfection in virtue and in beauty. If the
soul cannot return to that state during a life time, it must go through as
many reincarnations as is necessary until it has regained its purity. That
perfect state will then allow it to go back to the world of eternal ideas where
it came from. This Platonic teaching is of course reminiscent of Asian
religions which include the belief in reincarnation to this day. What for
Plato is the discovery of a transcendental reality becomes for Simmel the
539
creation of a mental form (ideal type).
The Islamic world, the Byzantine empire, and Western Europe was
practically equal from the 10th to the 13th century. Many elements of the
educational system of the Muslims were adopted by the first European
universities. Muslim science prompted the rediscovery of the scholarship of
ancient Greece in Europe.
Kant created a new perspective in philosophy which had widespread
influences on philosophy continuing through to the 21st century. He
published important works on epistemology, as well as works relevant to
religion, law, and history. One of his most prominent works is the Critique
of Pure Reason, an investigation into the limitations and structure of reason
itself. It encompasses an attack on traditional metaphysics and
epistemology, and highlights Kant's own contribution to these areas.
Kant‘s thought was very influential in Germany during his lifetime, moving
philosophy beyond the debate between the rationalists and empiricists. The
philosophers Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Simmel each saw
themselves as correcting and expanding the Kantian system, thus bringing
about various forms of German idealism. Kant continues to be a major
influence on philosophy worldwide.
Kant: "Up to now it has been assumed that all our cognition must conform
to the objects; but ... let us once try whether we do not get farther with the
problems of metaphysics by assuming that the objects must conform to our
cognition." Kant admitted that reason creates its own objects, in order to
achieve completeness and a systematic order – objects that are not
empirically given (ideal types).
By rejecting sensualism as Plato had done, Kant considered it to be
irresponsible to restrict scholarly efforts to the empirical realm. The objects
of sensory perception will not let truth become immediately discernible –
not for Plato because everything is too much in flux, not for Kant because
the overwhelming complexity of reality makes a clear overview impossible.
In summary then we can say about Kant‘s philosophy: Kant (1724-1804)
has changed the approach to philosophy all over Europe. He has done that
by following the traditions of ancient Greek philosophy of course, but also
by including the European thinkers closer to him in history, particularly
Spinoza and the Scottish school of Philosophy: David Hume ( 1711-1776)
and Adam Smith (1723-1790, born one year before Kant).
The dialectic of the relationship between Master and Servant and shows
how that relationship gradually inverts the hierarchical positions letting the
servant became master and the master in turn become the servant.
There was consensus between Hegel and Schelling about leaving the
540
rationalistic approach to religion and replacing it with an historical and
empirical study of comparative religions. In his lectures on the Philosophy
of History Hegel deals with Islam in detail, giving it the name
Mohammedanism. He praises what he calls Islamic Monotheism as a
―Revolution of the Orient.‖
To Schelling the history of religions is not a history of forms of
consciousness, but instead is the result of the evolution of the direct
dialogue between man and God. Truth and freedom cannot be realized
without religion and cannot be post-religious.
Simmel sees the founder of the objective moral principles in Plato, who for
the first time cut loose the absolute good from the entanglement with
human subjectivity, be it egotistical or altruistic, and who placed that
highest objective idea into the center of the world orbit.‖ It is one of the
striking theses of Fei Xiaotong that this turn toward objective moral
principles never happened in China.
Western philosophy tended to extract from knowledge about human
behavior the general and abstract principles and formed those into a new
and independent system of knowledge. Chinese philosophy, however,
remained based on reports about striking and memorable events, and left it
to the person reporting it as well as to his or her listener, to draw the correct
conclusion.
Confucius said, "Among us, in our part of the country, those who are
upright are different from this. The father conceals the misconduct of the
son, and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Uprightness is to be
found in this." In the Chinese cultural tradition, loyalty toward a person is
regarded as being more important than obedience to an abstract rule.
To Confucius it is quite clear that the fundamental concepts and ethical
rules for a peaceful and cultured society have already been implemented in
his own country. They were tragically lost due to human wickedness.
According to Confucius it is the task of normative knowledge, for learned
Chinese to study the ancient corpus of wise insights and bring it back to
again become real in the ways in which the people in this world conduct
themselves.
It would be helpful to study the history of the relationship between – or the
absence of a clear separation of – the private and the public in China in
order to explain, why the two areas of social behavior have not become as
clearly distinct from each other as in the West.
They all, the living and the dead Chinese family members, are required to
play their respective roles in the family drama as on the stage of a theater.
Life is a ritual, ethics are the duty to perform that ritual with as much
541
perfection as possible. Neglect of the ritual obligations towards living
family member as well as toward the departed is sinning against one‘s
ancestors.
The universalistic ethic taught by Mozi disappeared, instead the rule of
placing the highest importance on the ties between relatives, developed into
the dominant ethical position in China: An ethic of exclusivity based on
kinship was to be acknowledged by the majority of the Chinese as
fundamentally human to this day.
The scholar and intellectual as expert in normative knowledge was the only
source of critical influence upon the unchecked authority of the emperor.
China has been and is to this day ruled by persons, not by principles: The
notion that everybody including the holder of the highest position in
government is subject to a law binding to all, is absent.
The ancient origins of Daoism lie in the interest of the learned Chinese
person to promote harmony in nature and society, also by giving good
advice to the ruler, and they lie in the interest of the ruler and others, to
avoid death by living as long as could be imagined.
The ruler‘s adherence to the instructions and admonitions of the
fundamental book Tao-te ching by Lao-tze (or Laozi) had the potential of
making him the guardian of the equilibrium of the universe which was to
subject itself in obedience to his priestly person.
By following certain ritual and dietary rules, the Daoist could make himself
or herself qualified to bypass physical death and ascend into heaven
directly. In addition, certain religious activities of a devoted Daoist could
even deliver the dead members of his or her own clan from the realm of
shadows in the underworld and enable them to ascend to heaven as well,
even after having resided below for some considerable time.
Human beings are themselves masters of their fate. According to Daoist
belief the individual does not depend on personages in heaven, not on gods,
saints, or even ancestors, but rather their fate is in his or her own hands,
because the powers in the beyond gave them the might to solicit the proper
responses themselves.
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