2) Pythagoras of Samos (570–490 BCE)
Pythagoras, one of the most famous ancient Greek philosophers, lived from
ca. 570 to ca. 490 BCE. He spent his early years on the island of Samos, off
the coast of modern Turkey. At the age of forty, however, he emigrated to
the city of Croton in southern Italy and most of his philosophical activity
occurred there
16
.
Pythagoras wrote nothing, nor were there any detailed accounts of his
thought written by contemporaries. By the first centuries BCE, moreover, it
became fashionable to present Pythagoras in a largely unhistorical way as a
semi-divine figure, who originated all that was true in the Greek
philosophical tradition, including many of Plato's and Aristotle's mature
ideas. The early evidence shows, however, that, while Pythagoras was
famous in his own day and even 150 years later in the time of Plato and
Aristotle, it was not mathematics or science upon which his fame rested.
Pythagoras was famous
1) as an expert on the fate of the soul after death (He thought that the soul
was immortal and went through a series of reincarnations);
2) as an expert on religious ritual;
3) as a wonder-worker who had a thigh of gold and who could be in two
places at the same time;
4) as the founder of a strict way of life that emphasized dietary restrictions,
religious ritual and rigorous self-discipline (similar to Daoist hermits in
China).
In his cosmology Pythagoras presented a universe that was structured
according to moral principles and significant numerical relationships and
may have been similar to conceptions of the cosmos found in Platonic
16
Source for this and the following paragraphs on Pythagoras: Huffman, Carl,
"Pythagoras", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2011 Edition,
Edward N. Zalta, editor.
501
myths. In such a cosmos, the planets were seen as instruments of divine
vengeance (―the hounds of Persephone‖). The sun and moon are the isles of
the blessed where we may go, if we live a good life. Thunder functioned to
frighten the souls being punished in Tartarus (the underworld). The
heavenly bodies also appear to have moved in accordance with the
mathematical ratios that govern the concordant musical intervals in order to
produce a music of the heavens.
In the teaching of Pythagoras, the mathematics of the movements of the
heavens was not worked out in detail. There is evidence that Pythagoras
valued relationships between numbers such as those embodied in the so-
called Pythagorean theorem, though it is not likely that he proved the
theorem. Pythagoras' cosmos was developed in a more scientific and
mathematical direction by his successors in the Pythagorean tradition:
Philolaus and Archytas. Pythagoras succeeded in teaching a new more
optimistic view of the fate of the soul after death and in founding a way of
life that was attractive for its rigor and discipline and that drew to him
numerous devoted followers.
We owe these insights on the Presocratics to Aristotle, who is explicit that
the Pythagoreans recognized only the sensible world and hence did not
derive it from immaterial principles. Aristotle's careful distinctions between
Plato and fifth-century Pythagoreanism, which make excellent sense in
terms of the general development of Greek philosophy, are largely ignored
in the later tradition in favor of the more sensational, but historically
incorrect, ascription of mature Platonism to Pythagoras.
There were authors in the Neo-Pythagorean tradition, whose goal was to
show that all later Greek philosophy, insofar as it was true, had been stolen
from Pythagoras, who was seen as founder of a life-style. Aristoxenus is
emphatic that Pythagoras was not a strict vegetarian and ate various types
of meat. But Aristoxenus' contemporary, the mathematician Eudoxus,
portrays him not only as avoiding all meat but as even refusing to associate
with butchers.
For Aristotle Pythagoras did not belong to the succession of thinkers
starting with Thales, who were attempting to explain the basic principles of
the natural world. Plato is often thought to be heavily indebted to the
Pythagoreans, but he gives almost as little information in his references to
Pythagoras as Aristotle does and mentions him only once in his writings.
Plato's one reference to Pythagoras treats him only as the founder of a way
of life, just as Aristotle does.
A famous fragment of Xenophanes, Pythagoras' contemporary, provides
some more specific information on what happens to the soul after death. He
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reports that ―once when he [Pythagoras] was present at the beating of a
puppy, he pitied it and said ‗stop, don't keep hitting him, since it is the soul
of a man who is dear to me, which I recognized, when I heard it yelping‘‖
17
.
Although Xenophanes clearly finds the idea ridiculous, the fragment shows
that Pythagoras believed in reincarnation, according to which human souls
could have been reborn into animals after death.
It is crucial to recognize that most Greeks followed Homer in believing that
the soul was an insubstantial shade, which lived a shadowy existence in the
underworld after death. That existence appeared so bleak that Achilles
famously asserts that he would rather be the lowest mortal on earth than
king of the dead
18
. Pythagoras' teachings that the soul was immortal, that it
would have other physical incarnations and might have a good existence
after death were striking innovations that must have had considerable
appeal in comparison to the Homeric view. Much later of course Aristotle
writes his ―three books‖ On the Soul, calling the soul psuché (psyche,
psychology).
The picture of Pythagoras that emerges from the evidence is thus not that of
a mathematician, who offered rigorous proofs, or of a scientist, who carried
out experiments to discover the nature of the natural world, but rather of
someone who sees special significance in and assigns special prominence to
mathematical relationships that were in general circulation. This is the
context in which one should understand Aristoxenus' remark that
―Pythagoras most of all seems to have honored and advanced the study
concerned with numbers, having taken it away from the use of merchants
and likening all things to numbers‖. Pythagoras is thus known for the honor
he gives to the number and for removing it from the practical realm of trade
and instead pointing to correspondences between the behavior of numbers
and the behavior of things.
3) Parmenides (515-460/455 BCE)
Parmenides of Elea, active in the earlier part of the 5
th
century BCE,
authored a difficult metaphysical poem that has earned him a reputation as
early Greek philosophy's most profound and challenging thinker. His
philosophical stance has typically been understood as at once extremely
paradoxical and yet crucial for the broader development of Greek natural
17
Xenophanes, Fragment No. 7.
18
Homer, Odyssey XI. 489.
503
philosophy and metaphysics
19
.
Parmenides has been seen as a metaphysical monist who so challenged the
naïve cosmological theories of his predecessors that his major successors
among the Presocratics developed more sophisticated physical theories in
response to his arguments. We must ask whether his system reflects a
critical attitude toward earlier thinkers such as the Milesians, Pythagoreans,
and Heraclitus, or whether he was motivated simply by more strictly logical
concerns.
Plato describes Parmenides as about sixty-five years old and Socrates, with
whom he converses in the first part of the dialogue, as ―quite young then,‖
which is normally taken to mean about twenty. Given that Socrates was a
little past seventy when executed by the Athenians in 399 BCE, one can
infer from this description that Parmenides was born about 515 BCE.
Parmenides‘ poem began describing a journey he figuratively had once
made to the abode of a goddess. He described how he was conveyed on ―the
far-fabled path of the divinity‖
20
in a chariot by a team of mares and how
the maiden daughters of Helios, the sun-god, led the way. These maidens
take Parmenides to whence they themselves have come, to ―the halls of
Night‖
21
, before which stand ―the gates of the paths of night and day‖
22
. The
maidens gently persuade Justice, guardian of these gates, to open them so
that Parmenides himself may pass through to the abode within.
Parmenides thus describes how the goddess who dwells there welcomed
him upon his arrival:
And the goddess received me kindly, and in her hand, she took/
my right hand, and she spoke and addressed me thus:/
―O young man, accompanied by immortal charioteers/
and mares who bear you as you arrive at our abode,/
welcome, since a fate by no means ill, sent you ahead to travel/
this way (for surely it is far from the track of humans),/
but Right and Justice did.‖
Parmenides' poem is not an epistemological allegory of enlightenment but a
topographically specific description of a mystical journey to the halls of
19
This and the following paragraphs are based on: W.K.C. Guthrie, A History of
Greek Philosophy, vol. II, The Presocratic Tradition from Parmenides to
Democritus, Cambridge University Press 1965.
20
Parmenides, Fragment No. 1.3.
21
Parmenides, Fragment No. 1.9.
22
Parmenides, Fragment No. 1.11.
504
Night to meet the goddess of Night
23
, who serves as counselor to Zeus in
some of the major Orphic cosmologies. In the closely related Orphic
Rhapsodies, Night instructs Zeus on how to preserve the unity produced by
his absorption of all things into himself as he sets about initiating a new
cosmogonic phase. It is thus appropriate that Night should be the source of
Parmenides' revelation, for Parmenidean metaphysics is very much
concerned with the principle of unity in the cosmos.
The goddess begins her account of ―true reality,‖ or what is to be
discovered along this first path, as follows:
―As yet a single tale of a way/
remains, that it is; and along this path markers are there/
very many, that What Is is ungenerated and deathless, /
whole and uniform, and still and perfect‖.
What Is (―to eon”) has become a name for what Parmenides will form a
fuller conception of by following the goddess' directions. These now
include the programmatic description here of the attributes What Is will be
shown to have. What Is does not come to be or pass away, these words are
probably better understood as a declaration of What Is's uninterrupted
existence.
The goddess then presents a much briefer argument for What Is's being
―whole and uniform‖:
―Nor is it divided, since it is all alike;/
and it is not any more there, which would keep it from holding together,/
nor any worser, but it is all replete with What Is./
Therefore, it is all continuous: for What Is approaches What Is.‖
Then she argues that it is ―still‖ or motionless:
And unmoved within the limits of great bonds/
it is unbeginning unending, since generation and destruction/
have wandered quite far away, and genuine conviction has expelled them. /
And remaining the same, in the same place, and on its own, it rests, /
and thus, steadfast right there it remains; for powerful Necessity/
holds it in the bonds of a limit, which encloses it all around, /
wherefore it is right that What Is be not unfulfilled;
for it is not lacking: if it were, it would lack everything.
The nature of reality led Parmenides to conclude ―that reality [is], and must
be, a unity in the strictest sense and that any change in it [is] impossible‖
and therefore that ―the world as perceived by the senses is unreal‖
24
.
23
Compare Mozart‘s opera ―The Magic Flute!‖
24
Guthrie op.cit., 4-5.
505
Finding reason and sensation to yield wildly contradictory views of reality,
he presumed reason must be preferred and sensory evidence thereby
rejected as altogether deceptive.
Parmenides' strict monism, in Guthrie's view, took particular aim at the
monistic material principles of Milesian cosmology. Monism of course is
the philosophical or metaphysical claim that all processes and phenomena
can be related to one single fundamental principle. Parmenides argues with
devastating precision that once one has said that something is, one is
debarred from saying that it was or will be, or attributing to it an origin or a
dissolution in time, or any alteration or motion whatsoever.
But this was just what the Milesians had done. They supposed that the
world had not always existed in its present cosmic state. They derived it
from one substance, which they asserted to have changed or moved in
various ways—becoming hotter or colder, drier or wetter, rarer or denser—
in order to produce the present world-order
25
.
In the thinking of Parmenides, by contrast, we see here very early
philosophical concepts on the ideas of unity and being. Reality is defined as
not accessible to the senses. In addition, real is what does not change:
Anything sensual and developing is unreal to Parmenides.
4) Heraclitus of Ephesus (520-460 BCE)
The theory of a changing reality is rooted not in Darwin but in Heraclitus
and his school. According to Plato, Socrates has taught: ―It was Heraclitus
who said: Everything flows on, nothing stays in place.‖ Heraclitus also
stated: You can never climb into the same river twice. The theory of change
has a continuity in philosophy from Heraclitus all the way to Hegel, Marx
26
,
and Georg Simmel (1858-1918). Plato, quite plausibly, recognized later that
while Heraclitus affirmed the ever-changing nature of the cosmos, he also
believed in the identity of processes. A river is a process, indeed the same
process, though the river is different now than it was a moment ago.
Heraclitus, who discovered in what is shared or common to all the essential
principle of order in the universe, recognized within the city the unifying
role of the nomos. That is the structure of civic law and moral custom
which protects the demos as the city wall protects all the inhabitants of the
city
27
. The only political attitude which we can safely extrapolate from the
25
Guthrie op.cit., 15-16.
26
Marx wrote his doctoral thesis on a topic from Ancient Greek Philosophy: Zur
Differenz der demokritischen und epikureischen Naturphilosophie (On the
Difference in the Philosophy of Nature by Demokrit and Epikur).
27
Heraclitus, Fragment No. 100.
506
fragments is a lucid, almost Hobbesian appreciation of the fact that civilized
life and communal survival depend upon loyalty to the law. That is the
nomos, the law in which all citizens have a share
28
, but which may be
realized in the leadership of a single outstanding man. - This is a summary
of Presocratic Philosophy: 1) There are two sources of insight: sensual
perception and rational thinking. 2) What appears to the senses is
unreliable; and because it changes, it is also not real.
B. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
1) Socrates (469 – 399 BCE)
Socrates, like Confucius and Jesus, did not write down what they taught.
Just as we know about the Presocratics from the writing of Aristotle (and
very few fragments of original text that was mostly lost) we depend for our
knowledge about Socrates upon his famous student Plato. This means,
when we appear to be recounting what has come down to us form the
wisdom of Socrates, we are in fact quoting from something that was written
by Plato.
The topic of continuity and change is very much at the center of Socrates'
speech on love in the Symposium (by Plato): There Plato has Socrates say:
―Even in the life of the same individual there is succession and not absolute
unity: A man is called the same, and yet in the short interval which elapses
between youth and age… he is undergoing a perpetual process of loss and
reparation - hair, flesh, bones, blood, and the whole body are always
changing. Which is true not only of the body, but also of the soul, whose
habits, tempers, opinions, desires, pleasures, pains, fears, never remain the
same in any one of us‖. But he is the same person! There clearly is a
continuity here with what we have heard from Heraclitus.
The quotation reflects the tension between change and identity in Socrates
that we have seen in in the thinking of Heraclitus as well. In light of the
insecurity which characterized Greek behavior during the time of Socrates,
moral and political life was threatened by change and "subjectivist
arbitrariness"
29
as well as by "reactionary" regressions to older forms of
"authority, instinctive security, and tradition" that had lost their
effectiveness. Socrates wanted to show the way toward clear guidelines for
behavior and hence tried hard to "regain norm-building firmness and
security"
30
.
28
Heraclitus, Fragment No. 91b.
29
H. J. Helle. Explaining What Happens in Society Today, Amazon.com, 2018a,
20.
30
Ibid.
507
With these goals in mind, Socrates searched for the concept behind each
object. He did this, because he wanted to avoid any one-sidedness and
instead get the fullest grasp possible of the whole phenomenon. Mere
subjective specification of a phenomenon is vulnerable to chance, to
emotional disposition, to moods, and to personal interests of individuals.
Intellectual work, however, which should open the access to concept, as
Socrates used the term, can serve no interest other than objectivity, which –
insofar as it escapes subjective errors – can be called truth.
The convincing claim that knowledge be corroborated in practical behavior
– in the handicrafts, in horse breeding as well as in the arts, in other words
in everything which in ancient Greece fell under the rubric of the
"technical" – is analogously transferred to ethics and politics: here as well,
isolated and subjective opinions have to be replaced by an objective and
generally valid knowledge. Thus, Philosophy has the potential of supporting
ethical behavior.
Socrates was in search of the concept because he intended to deduce from it
prescriptions for correct behavior for two reasons: 1) In order to enable
understanding and interpretation of experienced events. 2) In preparing us
to make decisions about what to do. Socrates examined the concepts of the
ruler, of justice, of the statesman, of fortitude, always with the conviction
that from a correct concept will follow correct behavior.
2) Plato (427-347 BCE)
Plato was born to a wealthy and prominent family. He was given the name
Aristokles. Later he was called Plato because of his wide forehead. When
he was young there was war in his home community of Athens, and he was
disillusioned with politics and disappointed about ancient Greek democracy
as well as oligarchy. He felt repelled by injustice and corruption there. In
his drive for an alternative of hope to the depressing presence, which he
found himself in, he looked for philosophy.
Plato was introduced to the very strange philosopher Socrates. He became
his student and admirer when he was twenty years old and followed him for
eight years. He also witnessed the trial against his teacher, tried to get heard
in his defense, but in vain, tried to pay the large amount of money to free
Socrates from death, but also in vain. When Socrates died, Plato was ill and
unable to witness the event.
Because as a well-known follower of Socrates Plato felt threatened in
Athens, he left and emigrated to Southern Italy. There he advised the tyrant
of the island of Sicily and tried to persuade him to implement some if
Plato‘s political ideas. This worked well for a while, but then the
relationship with the tyrant deteriorated, Plato was no longer liked by him,
508
so he was imprisoned and sold into slavery. Fortunately, a wealthy friend
could buy the slave Plato and give him back his freedom. After his return to
Athens Plato purchased a piece of land and founded on it the famous
Academy which soon became attractive to many interested young men.
The Platonic Academy existed for many centuries. During the following
twenty years Plato was a teacher at his Academy and during that time most
of his 41 writings were composed by him. Of those 41 texts 36 were written
as dialogues. Most of these dialogues are invented conversations with
Socrates, which Plato lets relatives or friends of his have with his old
teacher, and they may well represent conversations with Socrates that Plato
really experienced while Socrates was still alive. The most impressive
dialogues are the following three: The Apology with the defense of Socrates
against his accusers, The Crito with the reasoning against fleeing to save
one‘s live, and The Phaido with the report about how Socrates died.
In the typical competition among the different schools of philosophy, it was
Plato‘s intention to overcome the sophists. He rejected the teaching that
there was no general measure for all things and that the human being was
the yard stick for everything else. He found that to be dangerous thinking
because it has the potential of destroying the foundations of ethical
behavior. Therefore, Plato wanted to show that there is indeed a general
measure and rule for ethics and he also wanted to show how to find out
about that.
With this in mind, Plato developed the teaching of the eternal ideas. If
everything changes all the time as Heraclitus has maintained, then it is not
possible to say anything valid and lasting about it. Still Plato wanted to find
out about the secret of constant change. He was impressed by the teaching
of Parmenides of an unchanging perfect world behind the world which we
can see. But for Parmenides that perfect world was not connected to the
things we can see. This problem reminded Plato of his teacher Socrates.
If someone whom Socrates asked, ―why do you do this?‖ gave the answer:
because it is just, then Socrates would always ask: What is just, what do
you mean by justice? Socrates was looking for what various just actions and
forms of behavior have in common as its essential core. Socrates insisted on
concept formation, on finding expression in langue for the most abstract
and general concept. Plato went one step further than this. To him such
eternal truth can be found behind all things which we experience in our
lives. Those Plato called Ideas. Because Plato believed that they do not
change or develop, I call them here Plato‘s eternal ideas.
The meaning of the Greek word idea is really the way something looks and
the shape it has. Behind everything there is such an idea, behind all the
509
plants which we call trees there is the idea of treeness, and of course to
Plato such eternal ideas as courage and honesty have eternal ideas behind
them. The ideas are the fundamental images that cannot be seen, and the
visible things are merely their imperfect copies. His famous parable of the
cave is intended to describe what it means to move from the world of the
visible and the imperfect to the realm of the ideas.
To be caught in the daily routine of visible phenomena is like living caught
in a cave. Climbing up to the level of the ideas – as we as intellectuals are
constantly trying to do – is like raising ourselves up to the light of the sun.
To Plato the world we can see was only a misleading impression and could
potentially distract us from the world of the idea that he believed to be
hidden behind the visible world. Humans also are twofold: As men and
women, we belong to both worlds, with our souls we are part of the world
of the eternal ideas, with our imperfect and suffering bodies we belong to
the visible world.
When we die, the souls leave the body. Our soul is to Plato immortal:
Before it became incarnated into a body, the soul was part of the world of
eternal ideas, and so it represents perfection in virtue and in beauty. We can
easily see, how these thoughts of Plato became part of the Christian
religion. When the soul was in the beyond where all the eternal ideas are,
the soul could actually see those ideas. It is therefore somehow informed of
what it should strive for in the visible world, it somehow knows what is
beautiful without ever having to be told or taught that, because the soul can
remember what it saw before it was reincarnated at birth.
Plato did not think highly of women because he thinks they only distract
men from studying, but in his dialogue ―Symposion‖ he lets Socrates give a
wonderful description of love as the experience of beauty combined with
the desire to never lose what one loves but to keep it forever.
The soul in our lives is related to the world of eternal ideas through reason,
and at the same time the soul is connected to the visible world via the
bodily senses. Reason makes the soul want to get rid of the ties to the often-
painful world of the bodies completely and move closer and closer to the
world of eternal ideas. If the soul cannot accomplish that within one
lifetime, it must go through as many reincarnations as is necessary until it
has regained its purity. That perfect state will then allow it to go back to the
world of eternal ideas where it came from. This Platonic teaching is of
course reminiscent of Asian religions which include the belief in
reincarnation to this day.
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