Azərbaycan Respublikası “ÇAĞ” Öyrətim İşlətmələri

isolating language (in fact the most extreme case of an analytic language) is any 
language in which words are composed of a single morpheme. This is in contrast to 
a synthetic language which can have words composed of multiple morphemes. 
An isolating language can thus be defined as a language that has a one-to-one 
correspondence between word and morpheme. To illustrate, the English word-form 
:boy is a single word (namely boy) consisting of only a single morpheme (also 
boy). This word-form has a 1:1 morpheme-word ratio.The English word-form anti-
government is a single word-form consisting of three morphemes (namely, anti-, 
govern, -ment). This word-form has a 3:1 morpheme-word ratio. 
Languages that are considered to be isolating have a tendency for all words to 
have a 1:1 morpheme-word ratio. Because of this tendency, these languages are said 
to "lack morphology" since every word would not have an internal compositional 
structure in terms of word pieces (i.e. morphemes) — thus they would also lack 
bound morphemes like affixes. Isolating languages use independent words while 
synthetic languages tend to use affixes and internal modifications of roots for the 
same purpose. 
The morpheme-per-word ratio should be thought of as a scalar category ranging 
from low morpheme-per-word ratio (near 1.0) on the isolating pole of the scale to a 
high morpheme-per-word ratio on the other pole. Languages with a tendency to have 
morpheme-per-word ratios greater than 1.0 are termed synthetic. The flectional (or 
fusional) and agglutinative types of the traditional typology can then be considered 
subtypes of synthetic languages which are distinguished from each other according 
to the second degree-of-fusion parameter. 
SYNTHETIC LANGUAGES 
Synthetic languages form words by affixing a given number of dependent 
morphemes to a root morpheme. The morphemes may be distinguishable from the 

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root, or they may not. They may be fused with it or among themselves (in that 
multiple pieces of grammatical information may potentially be packed into one 
morpheme). Word order is less important for these languages than it is for analytic 
languages, since individual words express the grammatical relations that would 
otherwise be indicated by syntax. In addition, there tends to be a high degree of 
concordance (agreement, or cross-reference between different parts of the sentence). 
Therefore, morphology in synthetic languages is more important than syntax. Most 
Indo-European languages are moderately synthetic. 
AGGLUTINATIVE LANGUAGE 
Agglutinative languages have words containing several morphemes that are 
always clearly differentiable from one another in that each morpheme represents 
only one grammatical meaning and the boundaries between those morphemes are 
easily demarcated; that is, the bound morphemes are affixes, and they may be indi-
vidually identified. Agglutinative languages tend to have a high number of morphe-
mes per word, and their morphology is highly regular. 
FUSIONAL LANGUAGES 
Morphemes in fusional languages are not readily distinguishable from the root 
or among themselves. Several grammatical bits of meaning may be fused into one 
affix. Morphemes may also be expressed by internal phonological changes in the 
root (i.e. morphophonology), such as consonant gradation and vowel gradation, or 
by suprasegmental features such as stress or tone, which are of course inseparable 
from the root. 
POLYSYNTHETIC LANGUAGES 
In 1836, Wilhelm von Humboldt proposed a third category for classifying lan-
guages, a category that he labeled polysynthetic. (The term polysynthesis was first 
used in linguistics by Peter Stephen DuPonceau who borrowed it from chemistry.) 
These languages have a high morpheme-to-word ratio, a highly regular morphology, 
and a tendency for verb forms to include morphemes that refer to several argu-
ments besides the subject (polypersonalism). Another feature of polysynthetic lan-
guages is commonly expressed as "the ability to form words that are equivalent to 
whole sentences in other languages". The distinction between synthetic languages 
and polysynthetic languages is therefore relative: the place of one language largely 
depends on its relation to other languages displaying similar characteristics on the 
same scale. 
MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY IN REALITY 
Each of the types above are idealizations; they do not exist in a pure state in 
reality. Although they generally fit best into one category, all languages are mixed 
types. English is not analytic, but it is more analytic than Spanish, and much more 
analytic than Latin. Chinese is the usual model of analytic languages, but it does 
have some bound morphemes. Japanese is highly synthetic (agglutinative) in its 

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verbs, but clearly analytic in its nouns. For these reasons, the scale above is conti-
nuous and relative, not absolute. It is difficult to classify a language as absolutely 
analytic or synthetic, as a language could be described as more synthetic than 
Chinese, but less synthetic than Korean. 
 
 
TRANSLATION THEORY 
Muserref CELEBI 
Qafqaz Universiteti 2 kurs telebesi 
 
What is translation?It is always rendering the meaning of a tebext into another 
language in the way that the author intended the text,this ought to be simple and 
ought to be able to say something as well-in one language as in another. Translation 
studies is an interdiscipline containing elements of social science and the humanities, 
dealing with the systematic study of the theory, the description and the application 
of translation, interpreting or both these activities. 
Translation  is used as much to transmit knowledge or to create understanding 
between groups and nations as transmit the culture. 
The translation is for discussion.Both in its referential and its pragmatic aspect 
it has an invariant factor,but this factor cannot be precisely defined since it depends 
on the requirements and constraints exercised by one original on one translation. 
The remainder of translating theory is in essence psychological-the relationship 
between lanuage and reality,but it has practical applications.If one accepts this 
theory of translating there  is no gap between translation theory and practice.The 
theory of translation is based via the level of naturalness,on a theory of translation, 
1.  Three language functions:Expressive Informative Vocative 
2.  Translation theory:Semantic Communicative 
3.  Frame of reference:Problems Contextual factors Translation procedures 
4.  Theory of translating:Textual Referential Cohesive Natural and then trans-
lation practice 
Translation is an instrument of the education as well as of truth precisely it has 
to reach reader whose cultural and educational level is different.A great translation 
is also a work of art in his own right, but a good translation even of a great work, 
need to be so. 
The ideal translation will be accurate as to meaning and natural as to the receptor 
language forms used.An intended audience who is unfamiliar with the source text 
will readily understand it.the success of  a translation is measured by how closely it 
measures up to these ideals. 
The ideal translation should be: 
Accurate-reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning of the source text 

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Natural-using natural forms of the receptor language in a way that is approp-
riate to the kind of text being translated. 
Communicative-expressing all aspects of the meaning in a way that is readily 
understandable to intended audience. 
Translation is a process based on the theory that is possible to abstract the mea-
ning of a text from its forms and reproduce that meaning with the very different forms 
of a second language. Translation theory consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical 
structure communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, 
analyzing it in order to determine its meaning and then reconstructing this same 
meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the 
receptor language and its cultural context. 
In practice there is considerable variation in the types of translations produced 
by translators.Some translators work only in two language and are competent in both, 
others work from their first language to their second language and still others from 
their second language to their first language. Depending on these matters of language 
proficiency, the procedures used will vary project to project. 
Communication is the transfer of an intended message, and this is the purpose 
of language itself. Obviously, this process can be divided into two broad stages: 
transmission  speaking and writing and reception-listening and reading.. 
As a means of communication,translation is used for multilingual notices, which 
have at last appeared increasingly conspicuously in public places,for tourist publicity, 
where it is too ofen produced from the native into the foreign language by natives 
as a matter of national pride for official documents such as treaties and contracts, 
for reports papers textbooks articles to convey information advice and recommen-
dations for every branch of knowledge. 
Translation theory is: approaches to translation. The purpose of translation 
theory is to be service to the translator. It is designed to be a continuous link between 
translation theory and practice,it derives from a translation theory framework which 
proposes that when the main purpose of text is to convey information and convince 
the reader.Good theory is based on information gained from practice.Good practice 
is based on carefully worked-out theory. these two principles are interpendent. 
Translation calls on a theory in action: translator reviews the criteria for the various 
options, before he makes his selection as reproduce in his translation activity 
In a narrow sense translation theory is concerned with the translation method 
appropriately used for a certain type of text and it is therefore dependent on a 
functional theory of language.However in a wider sense translation theory is the 
body of knowledge that we about translating,extending from general principles to 
guidelines,suggestions and hints.Translation theory is concerned  with minutiae as 
well as generalities,and both may be equally important in the context. 
Translation theory in action translation theory used operationally for the pur-
pose of reviewing all the options and then making the decisions-in fact the teeth of 

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the theory-is a frame of reference for translation and translation criticism, relating 
first to complete texts where it has  most to say, then, in descending level, to parag-
raphs sentences, clauses, word groups, cultural and institutional terms, proper names, 
neologisms and key conceptual terms-morphemes and punctuation marks. 
The heart of translation theory is TRANSLATION PROBLEMS. Translation 
theory broadly consists of, and can be defined as, a large number of generalization of 
translation problems. A theoretical discussion of the philosophy and the psychology 
of translation is remote from the translator”s problems. 
What translation theory does is 
1.  To identify and define a translation problem 
2.  To indicate all the factors that have to be taken into account in solving the 
problem 
3.  To list all the possible translation procedures 
4.  To recommend the most suitable translation procedure,and appropriate 
translation. 
Translation theory is pointless and sterile if it does not arise from the problems 
of translation practice,from need to stand back and reflect, to consider all the factors. 
within the text and outside it, before coming to a decision. It is clear to everyone 
why do people theorize? To overcome translation problems. 
 
 
AMERICAN AND BRITISH ENGLISH DIFFERENCES 
Nərgiz NƏCƏFOVA 
Filologiya fakültəsi, II kurs, 206-cı qrup 
Elmi rəhbər: Ü.D.Hacıyeva İngilis dili və onun tədrisi  
metodikası kafedrasının baş müəllimi 
 
Regional dialects in the United States typically reflect the elements of the lan-
guage of the main immigrant groups in any particular region of the country, especially 
in terms of pronunciation and vernacular vocabulary. Scholars have mapped at 
least four major regional variations of spoken American English: Northern, Southern, 
Midland, and Western. After the American Civil War, the settlement of the western 
territories by migrants from the east led to dialect mixing and levelling, so that 
regional dialects are most strongly differentiated in the eastern parts of the country 
that were settled earlier. Localized dialects also exist with quite distinct variations, 
such as in Southern Appalachia and New York. 
British and American English are the reference norms for English as spoken, 
written, and taught in the rest of the world. For instance, the English-speaking 
members of the Commonwealth  often closely follow British English forms while 

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many new American English forms quickly become familiar outside of the United 
States. Although the dialects of English used in the former British Empire are often, 
to various extents, based on British English, most of the countries concerned have 
developed their own unique dialects, particularly with respect to pronunciation, 
idioms, and vocabulary; chief among them are Canadian English and  Australian 
English, which rank third and fourth in number of native speakers.
 
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 
The English language was first introduced to the Americas by British colonization, 
beginning in the early 17th century. Similarly, the language spread to numerous 
other parts of the world as a result of British trade and colonization elsewhere and 
the spread of the former British Empire, which, by 1921, held sway over a popula-
tion of about 470–570 million people: approximately a quarter of the world's popu-
lation at that time. 
Over the past 400 years, the form of the language used in the Americas—espe-
cially in the United States—and that used in the British Isles have diverged in a 
few minor ways, leading to the dialects now occasionally referred to as American 
English and British English. Differences between the two include pronunciation, 
grammar, vocabulary (lexis), spelling, punctuation, idioms, formatting of dates and 
numbers, and so on, although the differences in written and most spoken grammar 
structure tend to be much more minor than those of other aspects of the language in 
terms of mutual intelligibility. A small number of words have completely different 
meanings between the two dialects or are even unknown or not used in one of the 
dialects. One particular contribution towards formalizing these differences came 
from Noah Webster, who wrote the first American dictionary (published 1828) with 
the intention of showing that people in the United States spoke a different dialect 
from Britain, much like a regional accent. 
This divergence between American English and British English once caused 
George Bernard Shaw to say that the United States and United Kingdom are "two 
countries divided by a common language"; a similar comment is ascribed to Winston 
Churchill.  Likewise,  Oscar Wilde wrote, "We have really everything in common 
with America nowadays, except, of course, the language" (The Canterville Ghost, 
1888).  Henry Sweet falsely predicted in 1877, that within a century, American 
English, Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible. It 
may be the case that increased worldwide communication through radio, television, 
the Internet, and globalization has reduced the tendency to regional variation. This 
can result either in some variations becoming extinct (for instance, the wireless, 
superseded by the radio) or in the acceptance of wide variations as "perfectly good 
English" everywhere. Often at the core of the dialect though, the idiosyncrasies remain. 
USE OF TENSES 
Traditionally, BrE uses the present perfect tense to talk about an event in the 
recent past and with the words already,  just, and yet. In American usage, these 

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meanings can be expressed with the present perfect (to express a fact) or the simple 
past (to imply an expectation). This American style has become widespread only in 
the past 20 to 30 years; the British style is still in common use as well. Recently, the 
American use of just with simple past has made inroads into BrE, most visibly in 
advertising slogans and headlines such as "Cable broadband just got faster". 
"I've just arrived home." / "I just arrived home." 
"I've already eaten." / "I already ate." 
Similarly, AmE occasionally replaces the past perfect tense with the simple past
]
 
In BrE, have got or have can be used for possession and have got to and have 
to can be used for the modal of necessity. The forms that include ‘‘got’’ are usually 
used in informal contexts and the forms without got in contexts that are more formal. 
In American speech the form without got is used more than in the UK, although the 
form with got is often used for emphasis. Colloquial AmE informally uses got as a 
verb for these meanings – for example, I got two cars, I got to go. 
In conditional sentences, US spoken usage often substitutes would and would 
have (usually shortened to [I]'d and [I]'d have) for the simple past and for the 
pluperfect (If you'd leave now, you'd be on time. / If I would have [I'd've] cooked 
the pie we could have [could've] had it for lunch). This tends to be avoided in writing 
because it is often still considered non-standard although such use of would is 
widespread in spoken US English in all sectors of society. Some reliable sources 
now label this usage as acceptable US English and no longer label it as colloquial. 
(There are, of course, situations where would is used in British English too in 
seemingly counterfactual conditions, but these can usually be interpreted as a 
modal use of would:  If you would listen to me once in a while, you might learn 
something.In cases in which the action in the if clause takes place after that in the 
main clause, use of would in counterfactual conditions is however considered 
standard and correct usage in even formal UK and US usage: If it would make Bill 
happy, I'd [I would] give him the money. 
SPELLING 
In the early 18th century, English spelling was not standardized. Different 
standards became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries. Current 
BrE spellings follow, for the most part, those of Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of 
the English Language (1755). Many of the now characteristic AmE spellings were 
introduced, although often not created, by Noah Webster in his An American 
Dictionary of the English Language of 1828. 
Webster was a strong proponent of spelling reform for reasons both philologi-
cal and nationalistic. Many other spelling changes proposed in the US by Webster 
himself, and, in the early 20th century, by the Simplified Spelling Board never 
caught on. Among the advocates of spelling reform in England, the influences of 
those who preferred the Norman (or Anglo-French) spellings of certain words 
proved decisive. Subsequent spelling adjustments in the UK had little effect on 

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present-day US spelling, and vice versa. While, in many cases, AmE deviated in 
the 19th century from mainstream British spelling; on the other hand, it has also 
often retained older forms. 
 
 
THEORY OF TRANSLATON AND PROBLEMS 
Refi QURBANOV 
Qafqaz University Translation and Interpretation Department  
III Course student 
 
Translation has always been associated with the development of economic, 
political, scientific, and cultural relationships among people where different languages 
are spoken. 
It is known that, every country has its administration, nation, culture and etc. 
Therefore, the main quality of a good translator is his endless love for his profession, 
which is characterized by continuous search and non-stop work. While translating 
we must know two main things:first the source language style, second the target 
language style. 
SL-knowing the style that dominates the writing of articles in the SL enable us 
to know a large number of expressions not easily found in dictionaries e.g. loans 
from Latin and other languages. Being able to identify style marks also gives us a 
chance of concentrating on the information and not get lost in the labyrinth of con-
ventions that editorial rules could create. TL this is very much related to the above 
only that the problem here is seen the other way around. The TL, just like the SL, 
has its own style marks. 
According to P.NEWMARK when we are translating, we translate four levels 
more or less consciously in mind. 1)the source level-text level, level of language, 
where we begin and which we continually go back to. 2)referential level,the level 
of objects and events,real or imaginary, which we progressively have to visualize and 
build up and which is an essential part, first of the comprehension, then reproducetion 
process. 3)the cohesive level, which is more general and grammatical, which traces 
the train of thought, the feeling tone and the various presuppositions of the source 
language text. 4)the level of naturalness, of common language appropriate to the writer 
or speaker in certain situation. Working on the text level, you intuitively and auto-
matically make certain conversions; you transpose the source language grammar 
(clause and groups) into their ready translation language equivalents and translate 
the lexical units into the sense that appears immediately appropriate in the context 
of the sentence. The base level of translation is the text. This is the level of the literal 
translation of the source language into the target language, the level of translations 
you have to eliminate, but it also acts as a correction of paraphrases. So a part of