The work reviewed here demonstrates that the brainstem harbors a distributed assembly of neu-
ronal populations that are important for the regulation of diverse motor behaviors. A general
principle that emerges is that neurons with different functions are frequently spatially intermin-
gled but connected to precise circuitry ensuring different behavioral roles. Thus, it is critical to
isolate neuronal populations based on their neurotransmitter and genetic identity to understand
their function. Neuronal populations include dedicated communication channels to the spinal
cord that are involved in diverse aspects of controlling bodily movement as well as to networks
regulating behaviors steered by motor neurons embedded within the brainstem proper. Although
the overall organization of brainstem structures differs between species, the concept of descend-
ing pathways communicating specific information for action program execution is evolutionarily
conserved.
To illustrate this point, we briefly summarize progress in understanding the organization and
function of descending neurons in insects that, with only a few hundred neurons (Gronenberg
& Strausfeld 1990, Hsu & Bhandawat 2016), represent simpler models than mammals. Genetic
tion of individual neurons, covering about half the known neurons with projections to the ven-
tral nerve cord (Namiki et al. 2018), the structure analogous to the vertebrate spinal cord. Two
Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2019.42:485-504. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
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groups of descending neurons target nonoverlapping neuropil territories responsible for the con-
trol of flight and walking, respectively. A third group projects to the intermediate neuropil and
might drive more complex integrative motor behaviors requiring both types of behaviors such as
grooming or takeoff for flying (Namiki et al. 2018). Optogenetic activation in these genetically
stratified backgrounds assessed the functional impact of the identified descending neurons (Cande
et al. 2018). Notably, the activation of specific descending neurons frequently elicited stereotyped
behaviors. Interestingly, however, some induced behaviors depended on the fly’s behavioral state
before manipulation. These results suggest that the information conveyed by upper centers or
feedback mechanisms can be reconfigured in a state-dependent manner and can differentially im-
pact movement regulation. This concept will also be interesting to study in evolutionarily higher
species where state dependency might play more prominent roles in behavioral regulation.
Important questions on understanding how brainstem circuits orchestrate the learning and ex-
ecution of actions remain to be addressed. Although control elements for specific behaviors in
the brainstem are beginning to be unraveled, future work will determine how the combination of
individual elements for one behavior or the generation of action sequences is achieved. We also
need to understand how movement elements occurring in parallel are aligned and coordinated
to achieve the overall animal behavior. Moreover, certain action programs that should not occur
concurrently most likely rely on inhibitory mechanisms that prevent the unwanted behavior, on
the one hand, and enhance the chosen motor program, on the other. Some of these regulatory
and interactive mechanisms likely depend on upstream circuits, including the basal ganglia, cor-
tex, and thalamus, as well as the integration of feedback circuits from the periphery. Ultimately,
however, integrated information passes through neuronal populations in the brainstem that likely
also contribute to all of these processes.
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