EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of
ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal
syndrome in cirrhosis
European Association for the Study of the Liver
1
Ascites is the most common complication of cirrhosis, and $60%
of patients with compensated cirrhosis develop ascites within
10 years during the course of their disease [1]. Ascites only occurs
when portal hypertension has developed [2] and is primarily
related to an inability to excrete an adequate amount of sodium
into urine, leading to a positive sodium balance. A large body of
evidence suggests that renal sodium retention in patients with
cirrhosis is secondary to arterial splanchnic vasodilation. This
causes a decrease in effective arterial blood volume with activa-
tion of arterial and cardiopulmonary volume receptors, and
homeostatic activation of vasoconstrictor and sodium-retaining
systems (i.e., the sympathetic nervous system and the renin–
angiotensin–aldosterone system). Renal sodium retention leads
to expansion of the extracellular fluid volume and formation of
ascites and edema [3–5]. The development of ascites is associated
with a poor prognosis and impaired quality of life in patients with
cirrhosis [6,7]. Thus, patients with ascites should generally be
considered for referral for liver transplantation. There is a clear
rationale for the management of ascites in patients with cirrhosis,
as successful treatment may improve outcome and symptoms.
A panel of experts was selected by the EASL Governing Board
and met several times to discuss and write these guidelines
during 2008–2009. These guidelines were written according to
published studies retrieved from Pubmed. The evidence and
recommendations made in these guidelines have been graded
according to the GRADE system (Grading of Recommendations
Assessment Development and Evaluation). The strength of evi-
dence has been classified into three levels: A, high; B, moderate;
and C, low-quality evidence, while that of the recommendation
into two: strong and weak (Table 1). Where no clear evidence
existed, the recommendations were based on the consensus
advice of expert opinion(s) in the literature and that of the
writing committee.
1. Uncomplicated ascites
1.1. Evaluation of patients with ascites
Approximately 75% of patients presenting with ascites in Wes-
tern Europe or the USA have cirrhosis as the underlying cause.
For the remaining patients, ascites is caused by malignancy, heart
failure, tuberculosis, pancreatic disease, or other miscellaneous
causes.
1.2. Diagnosis of ascites
The initial evaluation of a patient with ascites should
include history, physical examination, abdominal ultrasound,
and laboratory assessment of liver function, renal function,
serum and urine electrolytes, as well as an analysis of the
ascitic fluid.
The International Ascites Club proposed to link the choice of
treatment of uncomplicated ascites to a classification of ascites
on the basis of a quantitative criterion (Table 2). The authors of
the current guidelines agree with this proposal.
A diagnostic paracentesis with an appropriate ascitic fluid
analysis is essential in all patients investigated for ascites prior
to any therapy to exclude causes of ascites other than cirrhosis
and rule out spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) in cirrhosis.
When the diagnosis of cirrhosis is not clinically evident, ascites
due to portal hypertension can be readily differentiated from
ascites due to other causes by the serum–ascites albumin gradi-
ent (SAAG). If the SAAG is greater than or equal to 1.1 g/dl (or
11 g/L), ascites is ascribed to portal hypertension with an approx-
imate 97% accuracy [8,9]. Total ascitic fluid protein concentration
should be measured to assess the risk of SBP since patients with
protein concentration lower than 15 g/L have an increased risk of
SBP [10].
A neutrophil count should be obtained to rule out the exis-
tence of SBP [10]. Ascitic fluid inoculation (10 ml) in blood cul-
ture bottles should be performed at the bedside in all patients.
Other tests, such as amylase, cytology, PCR and culture for myco-
bacteria should be done only when the diagnosis is unclear or if
there is a clinical suspicion of pancreatic disease, malignancy, or
tuberculosis [8–11].
Recommendations A diagnostic paracentesis should be per-
formed in all patients with new onset grade 2 or 3 ascites, and
in all patients hospitalized for worsening of ascites or any
complication of cirrhosis (Level A1).
Contributors: Chairman: Pere Ginès; Clinical Practice Guidelines Members: Paolo
Angeli, Kurt Lenz, Søren Møller, Kevin Moore, Richard Moreau; Journal of
Hepatology Representative: Carlo Merkel; EASL Governing Board Representatives:
Helmer Ring-Larsen and Mauro Bernardi; Reviewers: Guadalupe Garcia-Tsao,
Peter Hayes.
Journal of Hepatology 2010 vol. 53
j
397–417
Received 25 May 2010; accepted 25 May 2010
1
Correspondence: 7 rue des Battoirs, CH-1205 Geneva, Switzerland. Tel.: +41
22 807 0360; fax: +41 22 328 07 24.
Clinical Practice Guidelines
Neutrophil count and culture of ascitic fluid (by inocula-
tion into blood culture bottles at the bedside) should be per-
formed to exclude bacterial peritonitis (Level A1).
It is important to measure ascitic total protein concentra-
tion, since patients with an ascitic protein concentration of
less than 15 g/L have an increased risk of developing sponta-
neous bacterial peritonitis (Level A1) and may benefit from
antibiotic prophylaxis (Level A1).
Measurement of the serum–ascites albumin gradient may
be useful when the diagnosis of cirrhosis is not clinically evi-
dent or in patients with cirrhosis in whom a cause of ascites
different than cirrhosis is suspected (Level A2).
1.3. Prognosis of patients with ascites
The development of ascites in cirrhosis indicates a poor progno-
sis. The mortality is approximately 40% at 1 year and 50% at
2 years [7]. The most reliable factors in the prediction of poor
prognosis include: hyponatremia, low arterial pressure, increased
serum creatinine, and low urine sodium [7,12]. These parameters
are not included in the Child-Turcotte-Pugh score (CTP score) and
among them, only serum creatinine is included in the Model for
end-stage liver disease (MELD score). Furthermore, since serum
creatinine has limitations as an estimate of glomerular filtration
rate in cirrhosis [13], these scores probably underestimate the
mortality risk in patients with ascites [14]. Since allocation for
liver transplantation is based on the MELD score in several coun-
tries, patients with ascites may not receive an adequate priority
in the transplant lists. Therefore, there is need for improved
methods to assess prognosis in patients with ascites.
Recommendations Since the development of grade 2 or 3
ascites in patients with cirrhosis is associated with reduced
survival, liver transplantation should be considered as a
potential treatment option (Level B1).
1.4. Management of uncomplicated ascites
Patients with cirrhosis and ascites are at high risk for other com-
plications of liver disease, including refractory ascites, SBP, hypo-
natremia, or hepatorenal syndrome (HRS). The absence of these
ascites-related complications qualifies ascites as uncomplicated
[11].
1.4.1. Grade 1 or mild ascites
No data exist on the natural history of grade 1 ascites, and it is
not known how frequently patients with grade 1 or mild ascites
will develop grade 2 or 3 ascites.
1.4.2. Grade 2 or moderate ascites
Patients with moderate ascites can be treated as outpatients and
do not require hospitalization unless they have other complica-
tions of cirrhosis. Renal sodium excretion is not severely
impaired in most of these patients, but sodium excretion is low
relative to sodium intake. Treatment is aimed at counteracting
renal sodium retention and achieving a negative sodium balance.
This is done by reducing the sodium intake and enhancing the
renal sodium excretion by administration of diuretics. Whilst
the assumption of the upright posture activates sodium-retaining
systems and slightly impairs renal perfusion [15], forced bed rest
is not recommended because there are no clinical trials assessing
whether it improves the clinical efficacy of the medical treat-
ment of ascites.
1.4.2.1. Sodium restriction. A negative sodium balance can be
obtained by reducing dietary salt intake in approximately 10–
20% of cirrhotic patients with ascites, particularly in those pre-
senting with their first episode of ascites [16,17]. There are no
controlled clinical trials comparing restricted versus unre-
stricted sodium intake and the results of clinical trials in which
different regimens of restricted sodium intake were compared
are controversial [17,18]. Nevertheless, it is the current opinion
Table 1. Grading evidence and recommendations (adapted from the GRADE system).
Notes
Symbol
Grading of evidence
High quality evidence
Further research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of effect
A
Moderate quality evidence
Further research is likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate
of effect and may change the estimate
B
Low or very low quality of
evidence
Further research is very likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the
estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate. Any estimate of effect is uncertain
C
Grading recommendation
Strong recommendation
warranted
Factors influencing the strength of the recommendation included the quality of evidence,
presumed patient-important outcomes, and cost
1
Weaker recommendation
Variability in preferences and values, or more uncertainty: more likely a weak
recommendation is warranted
2
Recommendation is made with less certainty: higher cost or resource consumption
Table 2. Grading of ascites and suggested treatment.
Grade of ascites
Definition
Treatment
Grade 1 ascites
Mild ascites only detectable by ultrasound
No treatment
Grade 2 ascites
Moderate ascites evident by moderate symmetrical
distension of abdomen
Restriction of sodium intake and diuretics
Grade 3 ascites
Large or gross ascites with marked abdominal
distension
Large-volume paracentesis followed by restriction of sodium intake and diuretics (unless
patients have refractory ascites)
Clinical Practice Guidelines
398
Journal of Hepatology 2010 vol. 53
j
397–417
that dietary salt intake should be moderately restricted (approx-
imately 80–120 mmol of sodium per day). A more severe reduc-
tion in dietary sodium content is considered unnecessary and
even potentially detrimental since it may impair nutritional
status. There are no data to support the prophylactic use of
salt restriction in patients who have never had ascites. Fluid
intake should be restricted only in patients with dilutional
hyponatremia.
Recommendations Moderate restriction of salt intake is an
important component of the management of ascites (intake
of sodium of 80–120 mmol/day, which corresponds to 4.6–
6.9 g of salt/day) (Level B1). This is generally equivalent to a
no added salt diet with avoidance of pre-prepared meals.
There is insufficient evidence to recommend bed rest as
part of the treatment of ascites. There are no data to support
the use of fluid restriction in patients with ascites with normal
serum sodium concentration (Level B1).
1.4.2.2. Diuretics. Evidence demonstrates that renal sodium
retention in patients with cirrhosis and ascites is mainly due
to increased proximal as well as distal tubular sodium reab-
sorption rather than to a decrease of filtered sodium load
[19,20]. The mediators of the enhanced proximal tubular reab-
sorption of sodium have not been elucidated completely, while
the increased reabsorption of sodium along the distal tubule is
mostly related to hyperaldosteronism [21]. Aldosterone antago-
nists are more effective than loop diuretics in the management
of ascites and are the diuretics of choice [22]. Aldosterone
stimulates renal sodium reabsorption by increasing both the
permeability of the luminal membrane of principal cells to
sodium and the activity of the Na/K ATPase pump in the baso-
lateral membrane. Since the effect of aldosterone is slow, as it
involves interaction with a cytosolic receptor and then a
nuclear receptor, the dosage of antialdosteronic drugs should
be increased every 7 days. Amiloride, a diuretic acting in the
collecting duct, is less effective than aldosterone antagonists
and should be used only in those patients who develop severe
side effects with aldosterone antagonists [23].
A long-standing debate in the management of ascites is
whether aldosterone antagonists should be given alone or in
combination with a loop diuretic (i.e., furosemide). Two studies
have assessed which is the best approach to therapy, either
aldosterone antagonists in a stepwise increase every 7 days
(100–400 mg/day in 100 mg/day steps) with furosemide (40–
160 mg/day, in 40 mg/day steps) added only in patients not
responding to high doses of aldosterone antagonists or com-
bined therapy of aldosterone antagonists and furosemide from
the beginning of treatment (100 and 40 mg/day increased in a
stepwise manner every 7 days in case of no response up to
400 and 160 mg/day) [24,25]. These studies showed discrepant
findings which were likely due to differences in the populations
of patients studied, specifically with respect to the percentage of
patients with the first episode of ascites included in the two
studies [26]. From these studies it can be concluded that a
diuretic regime based on the combination of aldosterone antag-
onists and furosemide is the most adequate for patients with
recurrent ascites but not for patients with a first episode of asci-
tes. These latter patients should be treated initially only with an
aldosterone antagonist (i.e., spironolactone 100 mg/day) from
the start of therapy and increased in a stepwise manner every
7 days up to 400 mg/day in the unlikely case of no response.
In all patients, diuretic dosage should be adjusted to achieve a
rate of weight loss of no greater than 0.5 kg/day in patients
without peripheral edema and 1 kg/day in those with peripheral
edema to prevent diuretic-induced renal failure and/or hypona-
tremia [27]. Following mobilization of ascites, diuretics should
be reduced to maintain patients with minimal or no ascites to
avoid diuretic-induced complications. Alcohol abstinence is cru-
cial for the control of ascites in patients with alcohol-related
cirrhosis.
1.4.2.3. Complications of diuretic therapy. The use of diuretics may
be associated with several complications such as renal failure,
hepatic encephalopathy, electrolyte disorders, gynaecomastia,
and muscle cramps [20–29]. Diuretic-induced renal failure is
most frequently due to intravascular volume depletion that usu-
ally occurs as a result of an excessive diuretic therapy [27]. Diure-
tic therapy has been classically considered a precipitating factor
of hepatic encephalopathy, yet the mechanism is unknown.
Hypokalemia may occur if patients are treated with loop diuretics
alone. Hyperkalemia may develop as a result of treatment with
aldosterone antagonists or other potassium-sparing diuretics,
particularly in patients with renal impairment. Hyponatremia is
another frequent complication of diuretic therapy. The level of
hyponatremia at which diuretics should be stopped is conten-
tious. However, most experts agree that diuretics should be
stopped temporarily in patients whose serum sodium decreases
to less than 120–125 mmol/L. Gynaecomastia is common with
the use of aldosterone antagonists, but it does not usually require
discontinuation of treatment. Finally, diuretics may cause muscle
cramps [28,29]. If cramps are severe, diuretic dose should be
decreased or stopped and albumin infusion may relieve symp-
toms [29].
A significant proportion of patients develop diuretic-induced
complications during the first weeks of treatment [24]. Thus, fre-
quent measurements of serum creatinine, sodium, and potassium
concentration should be performed during this period. Routine
measurement of urine sodium is not necessary, except for non-
responders in whom urine sodium provides an assessment of
the natriuretic response to diuretics.
Recommendations Patients with the first episode of grade
2 (moderate) ascites should receive an aldosterone antago-
nist such as spironolactone alone, starting at 100 mg/day
and increasing stepwise every 7 days (in 100 mg steps) to a
maximum of 400 mg/day if there is no response (Level A1).
In patients who do not respond to aldosterone antagonists,
as defined by a reduction of body weight of less than 2 kg/
week, or in patients who develop hyperkalemia, furosemide
should be added at an increasing stepwise dose from
40 mg/day to a maximum of 160 mg/day (in 40 mg steps)
(Level A1). Patients should undergo frequent clinical and bio-
chemical monitoring particularly during the first month of
treatment (Level A1).
Patients with recurrent ascites should be treated with a
combination of an aldosterone antagonist plus furosemide,
the dose of which should be increased sequentially according
to response, as explained above (Level A1).
The maximum recommended weight loss during diuretic
therapy should be 0.5 kg/day in patients without edema and
1 kg/day in patients with edema (Level A1).
JOURNAL OF HEPATOLOGY
Journal of Hepatology 2010 vol. 53
j
397–417
399
The goal of long-term treatment is to maintain patients
free of ascites with the minimum dose of diuretics. Thus, once
the ascites has largely resolved, the dose of diuretics should be
reduced and discontinued later, whenever possible (Level B1).
Caution should be used when starting treatment with
diuretics in patients with renal impairment, hyponatremia,
or disturbances in serum potassium concentration and
patients should be submitted to frequent clinical and bio-
chemical monitoring. There is no good evidence as to what
is the level of severity of renal impairment and hyponatremia
in which diuretics should not be started. Serum potassium
levels should be corrected before commencing diuretic ther-
apy. Diuretics are generally contraindicated in patients with
overt hepatic encephalopathy (Level B1).
All diuretics should be discontinued if there is severe hypo-
natremia (serum sodium concentration <120 mmol/L), pro-
gressive renal failure, worsening hepatic encephalopathy, or
incapacitating muscle cramps (Level B1).
Furosemide should be stopped if there is severe hypokale-
mia (<3 mmol/L). Aldosterone antagonists should be stopped
if patients develop severe hyperkalemia (serum potassium
>6 mmol/L) (Level B1).
1.4.3. Grade 3 or large ascites
Large-volume paracentesis (LVP) is the treatment of choice for
the management of patients with grade 3 ascites. The main find-
ings of studies comparing LVP with diuretics in patients with
grade 3 ascites are summarized as follows [30–36]: (1) LVP com-
bined with infusion of albumin is more effective than diuretics
and significantly shortens the duration of hospital stay. (2) LVP
plus albumin is safer than diuretics, the frequency of hyponatre-
mia, renal impairment, and hepatic encephalopathy being lower
in patients treated with LVP than in those with diuretics, in the
majority of studies. (3) There were no differences between the
two approaches with respect to hospital re-admission or survival.
(4) LVP is a safe procedure and the risk of local complications,
such as hemorrhage or bowel perforation is extremely low [37].
The removal of large volumes of ascitic fluid is associated with
circulatory dysfunction characterized by a reduction of effective
blood volume, a condition known as post-paracentesis circula-
tory dysfunction (PPCD) [31,36,38]. Several lines of evidence indi-
cate that this circulatory dysfunction and/or the mechanisms
activated to maintain circulatory homeostasis have detrimental
effects in cirrhotic patients. First, circulatory dysfunction is asso-
ciated with rapid re-accumulation of ascites [35]. Secondly,
approximately 20% of these patients develop HRS and/or water
retention leading to dilutional hyponatremia [31]. Thirdly, portal
pressure increases in patients developing circulatory dysfunction
after LVP, probably owing to an increased intrahepatic resistance
due to the action of vasoconstrictor systems on the hepatic vas-
cular bed [39]. Finally, the development of circulatory dysfunc-
tion is associated with shortened survival [36].
The most effective method to prevent circulatory dysfunction
after LVP is the administration of albumin. Albumin is more effec-
tive than other plasma expanders (dextran-70, polygeline) for the
prevention of PPCD [36]. When less than 5 L of ascites are
removed, dextran-70 (8 g/L of ascites removed) or polygeline
(150 ml/L of ascites removed) show efficacy similar to that of
albumin. However, albumin is more effective than these other
plasma expanders when more than 5 L of ascites are removed
[36]. Despite this greater efficacy, randomized trials have not
shown differences in survival of patients treated with albumin
compared with those treated with other plasma expanders
[36,40,41]. Larger trials would be required to demonstrate a ben-
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