quinolone to prevent the development of SBP (Level A1).
3.3.2. Patients with low total protein content in ascitic fluid without
prior history of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
Cirrhotic patients with low ascitic fluid protein concentration
(<10 g/L) and/or high serum bilirubin levels are at high risk of
Clinical Practice Guidelines
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Journal of Hepatology 2010 vol. 53
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397–417
developing a first episode of SBP [10,149–152]. Several studies
have evaluated prophylaxis with norfloxacin in patients without
prior history of SBP (Table 7) [153–157]. One pilot, randomized,
open-label trial was performed comparing primary continuous
prophylaxis with norfloxacin to inpatient-only prophylaxis in
109 patients with cirrhosis and ascitic fluid total protein level
6
15 g/L or serum bilirubin level >2.5 mg/dl [154]. SBP was
reduced in the continuous treatment group at the expense of
more resistance of gut flora to norfloxacin in that group. In
another study, 107 patients with ascitic fluid total protein level
<15 g/L were randomized in a double-blind manner to receive
norfloxacin (400 mg/day for 6 months) or placebo [155]. Of note,
the existence of severe liver failure was not an inclusion crite-
rion. The primary endpoint was the occurrence of GNB infec-
tions. Norfloxacin significantly decreased the probability of
developing GNB infections, but had no significant effect on the
probability of developing SBP or survival. However, in this trial,
the sample size was not calculated to detect differences in
survival. In a third investigation, 68 patients with cirrhosis
and low ascites protein levels (<15 g/L) with advanced liver fail-
ure [Child-Pugh score P9 points with serum bilirubin level
P
3 mg/dl or impaired renal function (serum creatinine level
P
1.2 mg/dl, blood urea nitrogen level P25 mg/dl, or serum
sodium level 6130 mEq/L)] were randomized in a double-blind,
placebo-controlled trial, to receive norfloxacin (400 mg/day for
12 months) or placebo [156]. The primary endpoints of the trial
were 3-month and 1-year survival. Norfloxacin significantly
improved the 3-month probability of survival (94% versus
62%; p = 0.03) but at 1 year the difference in survival was not
significant (60% versus 48%; p = 0.05). Norfloxacin administra-
tion significantly reduced the 1-year probability of developing
SBP (7% versus 61%) and HRS (28% versus 41%). In a fourth
study, 100 patients with ascitic fluid total protein level <15 g/
L were randomized in double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to
ciprofloxacin (500 mg/day for 12 months) or placebo [157].
Enrolled patients had moderate liver failure (the Child-Pugh
scores were 8.3 ± 1.3 and 8.5 ± 1.5, in the placebo and ciproflox-
acin group, respectively). The primary endpoint was the occur-
rence of SBP. Although SBP occurred in 2 (4%) patients of the
ciprofloxacin group and in 7 (14%) patients of the placebo group,
this difference was not significant. Moreover, the probability of
being free of SBP was not significant (p = 0.076). The probability
of remaining free of bacterial infections was higher in patients
receiving ciprofloxacin (80% versus 55%; p = 0.05). The probabil-
ity of survival at 1 year was higher in patients receiving cipro-
floxacin (86% versus 66%; p < 0.04). Nevertheless, a type II
error cannot be ruled out as the sample size was not calculated
to detect differences in survival. The duration of primary antibi-
otic prophylaxis has not been established.
Recommendations One double-blind, placebo-controlled,
randomized trial performed in patients with severe liver dis-
ease (see text) with ascitic fluid protein lower than 15 g/L
and without prior SBP showed that norfloxacin (400 mg/day)
reduced the risk of SBP and improved survival. Therefore,
these patients should be considered for long-term prophylaxis
with norfloxacin (Level A1).
In patients with moderate liver disease, ascites protein
concentration lower than 15 g/L, and without prior history
of SBP, the efficacy of quinolones in preventing SBP or improv-
ing survival is not clearly established. Studies are needed in
this field.
3.3.3. Patients with prior spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
In patients who survive an episode of SBP, the cumulative
recurrence rate at 1 year is approximately 70% [108]. The prob-
ability of survival at 1 year after an episode of SBP is 30–50%
and falls to 25–30% at 2 years. Therefore, patients recovering
from an episode of SBP should be considered for liver trans-
plantation. There is only one randomized, double-blind, pla-
cebo-controlled trial of norfloxacin (400 mg/day orally) in
patients who had a previous episode of SBP [158] (Table 7).
Table 7. Antibiotic therapy for prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) in patients with cirrhosis.
a
Reference
Type of prophylaxis
Treatments
Number of
patients
Number of GNB
b
infections
p-value
Incidence of
SBP n (%)
p-value
Ginès, 1990
[158]
Enrolled only patients
with prior SBP
c
Norfloxacin
versus placebo
40
1
–
5 (12)
0.02
40
10
14 (35)
Soriano, 1991
[153]
Enrolled patients without prior
SBP and patients
with prior SBP
d
Norfloxacin
versus no treatment
32
0
<0.001
0 (0)
<0.02
31
9
7 (22.5)
Singh, 1995
[161]
Enrolled patients without prior
SBP and patients
with prior SBP
d
Trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole
versus no treatment
30
9
–
1 (3)
0.03
30
0
8 (27)
e
Rolachon, 1995
[160]
Enrolled patients without prior
SBP and patients
with prior SBP
c
Ciprofloxacin
versus placebo
28
1
–
1 (4)
<0.05
32
0
7 (22)
Novella, 1997
[154]
Enrolled only patients
without prior SBP
d
Continuous norfloxacin
versus in patient-only
prophylaxis
56
11
–
1 (1.8)
<0.01
53
13
9 (16.9)
Grangé, 1998
[155]
Enrolled only patients
without prior SBP
c
Norfloxacin
versus placebo
53
0
<0.04
0 (0)
NA
54
6
5 (9)
Fernández, 2007
[156]
Enrolled only patients
without prior SBP
c
Norfloxacin
versus placebo
35
13
–
2 (6)
0.02
33
6
10 (30)
Terg, 2008 [157]
Enrolled only patients
without prior SBP
c
Ciprofloxacin
versus placebo
50
–
–
2 (4)
0.076
50
7 (14)
NA, not available.
a
Studies appear in chronological order.
b
GNB means Gram-negative bacteria.
c
Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
d
Randomized, unblinded trial.
e
Including one patient with spontaneous bacteremia due to Klebsiella pneumonia.
JOURNAL OF HEPATOLOGY
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407
Treatment with norfloxacin reduced the probability of recur-
rence of SBP from 68% to 20% and the probability of SBP due
to GNB from 60% to 3%. Survival was not an endpoint of this
study. In an open-label, randomized study comparing norfloxa-
cin 400 mg/day to rufloxacin 400 mg/week in the prevention of
SBP recurrence, 1-year probability of SBP recurrence was 26%
and 36%, respectively (p = 0.16) [159]. Norfloxacin was more
effective in the prevention of SBP recurrence due to Enterobac-
teriaceae (0% versus 22%, p = 0.01). Three other studies
assessed the effects of ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim–sulfameth-
oxazole, and norfloxacin, but they included patients with and
without previous episodes of SBP [153,160,161] (Table 7). All
studies showed a reduced incidence of SBP with antibiotic
prophylaxis.
It is uncertain whether prophylaxis should be continued with-
out interruption until liver transplantation or death in all patients
with prior SBP or if treatment could be discontinued in patients
showing an improvement of liver disease.
Recommendations Patients who recover from an episode of
SBP have a high risk of developing recurrent SBP. In these
patients, the administration of prophylactic antibiotics
reduces the risk of recurrent SBP. Norfloxacin (400 mg/day,
orally) is the treatment of choice (Level A1). Alternative anti-
biotics include ciprofloxacin (750 mg once weekly, orally) or
co-trimoxazole (800 mg sulfamethoxazole and 160 mg tri-
methoprim daily, orally), but evidence is not as strong as that
with norfloxacin (Level A2).
Patients who recover from SBP have a poor long-term sur-
vival and should be considered for liver transplantation (Level
A1).
3.3.4. Issues with prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis
As mentioned earlier, prolonged antibiotic prophylaxis (primary
or secondary) has led to the emergence of GNB resistant to quin-
olones and even to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole [106]. In
addition, there is an increased likelihood of infections from
Gram-positive bacteria in patients who have received long-term
SBP prophylaxis [156,162]. This underlines the need to restrict
the use of prophylactic antibiotics to patients with the greatest
risk of SBP. Common sense would suggest that quinolone prophy-
laxis should be discontinued in patients who develop infection
due to quinolone-resistant bacteria. However, there are no data
to support this.
4. Hyponatremia
Hyponatremia is common in patients with decompensated cir-
rhosis and is related to impaired solute-free water excretion sec-
ondary to non-osmotic hypersecretion of vasopressin (the
antidiuretic hormone), which results in a disproportionate reten-
tion of water relative to sodium retention [163–166]. Hyponatre-
mia in cirrhosis is arbitrarily defined when serum sodium
concentration decreases below 130 mmol/L [163], but reductions
below 135 mmol/L should also be considered as hyponatremia,
according to recent guidelines on hyponatremia in the general
patient population [167].
Patients with cirrhosis may develop two types of hyponatre-
mia: hypovolemic and hypervolemic. Hypervolemic hyponatre-
mia is the most common and is characterized by low serum
sodium levels with expansion of the extracellular fluid volume,
with ascites and edema. It may occur spontaneously or as a con-
sequence of excessive hypotonic fluids (i.e., 5% dextrose) or sec-
ondary to complications of cirrhosis, particularly bacterial
infections. By contrast, hypovolemic hyponatremia is less com-
mon and is characterized by low serum sodium levels and
absence of ascites and edema, and is most frequently secondary
to excessive diuretic therapy.
Serum sodium concentration is an important marker of prog-
nosis in cirrhosis and the presence of hyponatremia is associated
with an impaired survival [64,65,168–174]. Moreover, hypona-
tremia may also be associated with an increased morbidity, par-
ticularly neurological complications, and reduced survival after
transplantation [175–177], although results of studies show dis-
crepant findings with respect to survival.
4.1. Management of hyponatremia
It is generally considered that hyponatremia should be treated
when serum sodium is lower than 130 mmol/L, although there
is no good evidence as to what is the level of serum sodium in
which treatment should be started.
The treatment of hypovolemic hyponatremia consists of
administration of sodium together with identification of the
causative factor (usually excessive diuretic administration) and
will not be considered further in these guidelines.
The key of the management of hypervolemic hyponatremia is
to induce a negative water balance with the aim of normalizing
the increased total body water, which would result in an
improvement of serum sodium concentration. Fluid restriction
has been the standard of care but is seldom effective. It is the
clinical experience that fluid restriction is helpful in preventing
a further decrease in serum sodium levels, although it is rarely
effective in improving serum sodium concentration. The lack of
efficacy is probably due to the fact that in practice total daily fluid
intake cannot be restricted to less than 1 L/day.
Although hypertonic sodium chloride administration has been
used commonly in severe hypervolemic hyponatremia, its effi-
cacy is partial, usually short-lived, and increases the amount of
ascites and edema. The administration of albumin appears to
improve serum sodium concentration, but more information is
needed [178,179].
The pathophysiologically-oriented treatment of hyponatremia
consists of improving solute-free water excretion which is mark-
edly impaired in these patients. Early attempts using agents such
as demeclocycline or
j
-opioid agonists were unsuccessful
because of side effects [180–183]. In recent years, the pharmaco-
logical approach to treatment of hypervolemic hyponatremia has
made a step forward with the discovery of vaptans, drugs that are
active orally and cause a selective blockade of the V2-receptors of
AVP in the principal cells of the collecting ducts [184–186]. These
drugs are effective in improving serum sodium concentration in
conditions associated with high vasopressin levels, such as the
syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion
(SIADH), heart failure, or cirrhosis [101,184,187–191]. The results
of these studies consistently demonstrate that the administration
of vaptans for a short period of time (1 week to 1 month in most
of the studies) is associated with an increased urine volume and
solute-free water excretion and improvement of the low serum
sodium levels in 45–82% of patients. No significant changes have
been observed in renal function, urine sodium, circulatory func-
tion, and activity of the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system.
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The most frequent side effect is thirst. Potential theoretical con-
cerns of the administration of vaptans in patients with cirrhosis
include hypernatremia, dehydration, renal impairment, and
osmotic demyelination syndrome owing to a too rapid increase
in serum sodium concentration. However, in the studies reported,
the frequency of hypernatremia, dehydration, and renal impair-
ment has been very low and no case of osmotic demyelination
syndrome has been reported. Nevertheless, these complications
should be taken into account and treatment should always be
started in the hospital with close clinical monitoring and assess-
ment of serum sodium levels, to avoid increases of serum sodium
of more than 8–10 mmol/L/day. Vaptans should not be given to
patients in an altered mental state (i.e., encephalopathy) who
cannot drink appropriate amounts of fluid because of the risk of
dehydration and hypernatremia. Vaptans are metabolized by
CYP3A enzymes in the liver; therefore, drugs that are strong
inhibitors of CYP3A such as ketoconazole, grapefruit juice, and
clarithromycin among others, increase the exposure to vaptans
and may be associated with large increases in serum sodium con-
centration. Conversely, drugs that are inducers of the CYP3A sys-
tem, such as rifampin, barbiturates, and phenytoin, may decrease
the effectiveness of vaptans.
Tolvaptan has been recently approved in the USA for the man-
agement of severe hypervolemic hyponatremia (<125 mmol/L)
associated with cirrhosis, ascites, heart failure, and the SIADH.
In Europe the drug is currently only licensed for the treatment
of SIADH. Conivaptan is also approved in the USA for the short-
term (5 day) intravenous treatment of hypervolemic hyponatre-
mia associated with different conditions. Treatment of tolvaptan
is started with 15 mg/day and titrated progressively to 30 and
60 mg/day, if needed, according to changes in serum sodium con-
centration. In randomized studies, a slightly increased frequency
of gastrointestinal bleeding was reported in patients receiving
tolvaptan compared to that in patients treated with placebo. No
differences in the incidence of other side effects were observed.
Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that tolvaptan was given
for a period of 1 month and only limited long-term safety data
exists with the use of this drug. Long-term, placebo-controlled
studies in patients with cirrhosis treated with tolvaptan are
clearly needed. No prospective evaluation on the efficacy and
safety of conivaptan has been performed in patients with cirrho-
sis and hyponatremia.
As discussed previously, a phase-3 randomized double-blind
placebo-controlled study comparing the efficacy of long-term
treatment with satavaptan in combination with diuretics aimed
at preventing ascites recurrence in patients with cirrhosis follow-
ing LVP showed an increased frequency of complications and
reduced survival in patients receiving satavaptan compared to
those receiving placebo [104].
Recommendations It is important to differentiate hypovole-
mic from hypervolemic hyponatremia. Hypovolemic hypona-
tremia is characterized by low serum sodium concentrations
in the absence of ascites and edema, and usually occurs after
a prolonged negative sodium balance with marked loss of
extracellular fluid. Management consists of administration
of normal saline and treatment of the cause (usually diuretic
withdrawal) (Level A1).
Fluid restriction to 1000 ml/day is effective in increasing
serum sodium concentration in only a minority of patients
with hypervolemic hyponatremia, but may be effective in pre-
venting a further reduction in serum sodium levels (Level A1).
There are no data to support the use of either normal or
hypertonic saline in the management of hypervolemic hypo-
natremia (Level A1). Albumin administration might be effec-
tive but data are very limited to support its use currently
(Level B2).
Treatment with vaptans may be considered in patients with
severe hypervolemic hyponatremia (<125 mmol/L). Tolvaptan
is licensed in some countries for oral treatment. Conivaptan
is only licensed in some countries for short-term intravenous
treatment. Treatment with tolvaptan should be started in the
hospital and the dose titrated to achieve a slow increase in
serum sodium. Serum sodium should be monitored closely
particularly during the first days of treatment and whenever
the dose of the drug is increased. Rapid increases in serum
sodium concentration (>8–10 mmol/day) should be avoided
to prevent the occurrence of osmotic demyelination syn-
drome. Neither fluid restriction nor administration of saline
should be used in combination with vaptans to avoid a too
rapid increase in serum sodium concentration. Patients may
be discharged after serum sodium levels are stable and no fur-
ther increase in the dose of the drug is required. Concomitant
treatment with drugs that are either potent inhibitors or
inducers of the CYP3A should be avoided. The duration of
treatment with vaptans is not known. Safety has only been
established for short-term treatment (1 month) (Level B1).
5. Hepatorenal syndrome
5.1. Definition and diagnosis of hepatorenal syndrome
Hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) is defined as the occurrence of renal
failure in a patient with advanced liver disease in the absence of
an identifiable cause of renal failure [56]. Thus, the diagnosis is
essentially one of exclusion of other causes of renal failure. In
1994 the International Ascites Club defined the major criteria
for the diagnosis of HRS and designated HRS into type 1 and type
2 HRS [56]. These were modified in 2007 [192]. The new diagnos-
tic criteria are shown in Table 8. Various new concepts have
emerged since the first definition and criteria for HRS were pub-
lished in 1996 [56]. These are that vasodilatation mainly occurs
in the splanchnic arterial bed, that the cardiac output in patients
with HRS may be low or normal (infrequently high), but insuffi-
cient for the patient’s needs, that the most important trigger for
the development of type 1 HRS is bacterial infection, and that
renal function can be improved by drug therapy [192].
Table 8. Criteria for diagnosis of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis.
Cirrhosis with ascites
Serum creatinine >1.5 mg/dl (133
l
mol/L)
Absence of shock
Absence of hypovolemia as defined by no sustained improvement of renal
function (creatinine decreasing to <133
l
mol/L) following at least 2 days of
diuretic withdrawal (if on diuretics), and volume expansion with albumin at
1 g/kg/day up to a maximum of 100 g/day
No current or recent treatment with nephrotoxic drugs
Absence of parenchymal renal disease as defined by proteinuria <0.5 g/day, no
microhaematuria (<50 red cells/high powered field), and normal renal
ultrasonography
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409
There are 2 types of HRS. Type 1 HRS is a rapidly progressive
acute renal failure that frequently develops in temporal relation-
ship with a precipitating factor for a deterioration of liver function
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