together with deterioration of other organ function. It commonly
occurs in severe alcoholic hepatitis or in patients with end-stage
cirrhosis following a septic insult such as SBP, although in some
patients it may occur in the absence of any identifiable triggering
event. Conventionally, type 1 HRS is only diagnosed when the
serum creatinine increases more than 100% from baseline to a final
level of greater than 2.5 mg/dl (221
l
mol/L). Type 2 HRS occurs in
patients with refractory ascites and there is a steady but moderate
degree of functional renal failure, often with avid sodium retention.
Patients with type 2 HRS may eventually develop type 1 HRS either
spontaneously or following a precipitating event such as SBP [56].
The renal community has recently re-termed acute renal failure as
acute kidney injury (AKI) [193]. However, the applicability and
usefulness of the AKI classification in patients with cirrhosis
requires full evaluation in prospective studies.
Recommendations It is important to make the diagnosis of
HRS or identify other known causes of renal failure in cirrhosis
as early as possible. The causes of renal failure in cirrhosis that
should be excluded before the diagnosis of HRS is made include:
hypovolemia, shock, parenchymal renal diseases, and concomi-
tant use of nephrotoxic drugs. Parenchymal renal diseases
should be suspected if there is significant proteinuria or microha-
ematuria, or if renal ultrasonography demonstrates abnormali-
ties in kidney size. Renal biopsy is important in these patients
to help plan the further management, including the potential
need for combined liver and kidney transplantation (Level B1).
HRS should be diagnosed by demonstrating a significant
increase in serum creatinine and excluding other known
causes of renal failure. For therapeutic purposes, HRS is usu-
ally diagnosed only when serum creatinine increases to
>133
l
mol/L (1.5mg/dl). Repeated measurement of serum cre-
atinine over time, particularly in hospitalized patients, is help-
ful in the early identification of HRS (Level B1).
HRS is classified into two types: type 1 HRS, characterized
by a rapid and progressive impairment in renal function
(increase in serum creatinine of equal to or greater than
100% compared to baseline to a level higher than 2.5 mg/dl
in less than 2 weeks), and type 2 HRS characterized by a stable
or less progressive impairment in renal function (Level A1).
5.2. Pathophysiology of hepatorenal syndrome
There are four factors involved in the pathogenesis of HRS. These
are (1) development of splanchnic vasodilatation which causes a
reduction in effective arterial blood volume and a decrease in
mean arterial pressure. (2) Activation of the sympathetic nervous
system and the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system which
causes renal vasoconstriction and a shift in the renal autoregula-
tory curve [194], which makes renal blood flow much more sen-
sitive to changes in mean arterial pressure. (3) Impairment of
cardiac function due to the development of cirrhotic cardiomyop-
athy, which leads to a relative impairment of the compensatory
increase in cardiac output secondary to vasodilatation. (4)
Increased synthesis of several vasoactive mediators which may
affect renal blood flow or glomerular microcirculatory hemody-
namics, such as cysteinyl leukotrienes, thromboxane A2, F
2
-iso-
prostanes, and endothelin-1, yet the role of these factors in the
pathogenesis of HRS remains unknown. An extended discussion
of the pathophysiology of HRS is outside the scope of these guide-
lines and can be found elsewhere [165,195,196].
5.3. Risk factors and prognosis of hepatorenal syndrome
The development of bacterial infections, particulary SBP, is the
most important risk factor for HRS [121,127,197,198]. HRS devel-
ops in approximately 30% of patients who develop SBP [121].
Treatment of SBP with albumin infusion together with antibiotics
reduces the risk of developing HRS and improves survival [121].
The prognosis of HRS remains poor, with an average median sur-
vival time of all patients with HRS of approximately only
3 months [195,199]. High MELD scores and type 1 HRS are asso-
ciated with very poor prognosis. Median survival of patients with
untreated type 1 HRS is of approximately 1 month [200].
5.4. Management of hepatorenal syndrome
5.4.1. General measures
All comments made in these guidelines with respect to treatment
refer to type 1 HRS unless otherwise specified. Once diagnosed,
treatment should be started early in order to prevent the progres-
sion of renal failure. General supportive measures include careful
monitoring of vital signs, standard liver and renal tests, and fre-
quent clinical assessment as well as management of concomitant
complications of cirrhosis. An excessive administration of fluids
should be avoided to prevent fluid overload and development/pro-
gression of dilutional hyponatremia. Potassium-sparing diuretics
should not be given because of the risk of severe hyperkalemia.
Recommendations Monitoring: Patients with type 1 HRS
should be monitored carefully. Parameters to be monitored
include urine output, fluid balance, and arterial pressure, as well
as standard vital signs. Ideally central venous pressure should be
monitored to help with the management of fluid balance and
prevent volume overload. Patients are generally better managed
in an intensive care or semi-intensive care unit (Level A1).
Screening for sepsis: Bacterial infection should be identi-
fied early, by blood, urine and ascitic fluid cultures, and trea-
ted with antibiotics. Patients who do not have signs of
infection should continue taking prophylactic antibiotics, if
previously prescribed. There are no data on the use of antibi-
otics as empirical treatment for unproven infection in
patients presenting with type 1 HRS (Level C1).
Use of beta-blockers: There are no data on whether it is
better to stop or continue with beta-blockers in patients with
type 1 HRS who are taking these drugs for prophylaxis against
variceal bleeding (Level C1).
Use of paracentesis: There are few data on the use of para-
centesis in patients with type 1 HRS. Nevertheless, if patients
have tense ascites, large-volume paracentesis with albumin
is useful in relieving patients’ discomfort (Level B1).
Use of diuretics: All diuretics should be stopped in patients
at the initial evaluation and diagnosis of HRS. There are no
data to support the use of furosemide in patients with ongo-
ing type 1 HRS. Nevertheless furosemide may be useful to
maintain urine output and treat central volume overload if
present. Spironolactone is contraindicated because of high
risk of life-threatening hyperkalemia (Level A1).
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5.4.2. Specific therapies
5.4.2.1. Drug therapy. The most effective method currently avail-
able is the administration of vasoconstrictor drugs. Among the
vasoconstrictors used, those that have been investigated more
extensively are the vasopressin analogues particularly terlipres-
sin [195,201–209]. The rationale for the use of vasopressin ana-
logues in HRS is to improve the markedly impaired circulatory
function by causing a vasoconstriction of the extremely dilated
splanchnic vascular bed and increasing arterial pressure [210,211].
A large number of studies, randomized and non-randomized,
have shown that terlipressin improves renal function in patients
with type 1 HRS. Treatment is effective in 40–50% of patients,
approximately (reviewed in [195,210]). There is no standardized
dose schedule for terlipressin administration because of the lack
of dose-finding studies. Terlipressin is generally started at a dose
of 1 mg/4–6 h and increased to a maximum of 2 mg/4–6 h if there
is no reduction in serum creatinine of at least 25% compared to
the baseline value at day 3 of therapy. Treatment is maintained
until serum creatinine has decreased below 1.5 mg/dl (133
l
mol/L),
usually around to 1–1.2 mg/dl (88–106
l
mol/L). Response to
therapy is generally characterized by a slowly progressive reduc-
tion in serum creatinine (to below 1.5 mg/dl–133
l
mol/L), and an
increase in arterial pressure, urine volume, and serum sodium
concentration. Median time to response is 14 days and usually
depends on pre-treatment serum creatinine, the time being
shorter in patients with lower baseline serum creatinine [212].
A serum bilirubin less than 10 mg/dl before treatment and an
increase in mean arterial pressure of >5 mm Hg at day 3 of
treatment are associated with a high probability of response to
therapy [212]. Recurrence after withdrawal of therapy is uncom-
mon and retreatment with terlipressin is generally effective. The
most frequent side effects of treatment are cardiovascular or
ischemic complications, which have been reported in an average
of 12% of patients treated [195,210]. It is important to emphasize
that most studies excluded patients with known severe cardio-
vascular or ischemic conditions. In most studies, terlipressin
was given in combination with albumin (1 g/kg on day 1 followed
by 40 g/day) to improve the efficacy of treatment on circulatory
function [213].
Treatment with terlipressin has been shown to improve sur-
vival in some studies but not in others. A recent systematic review
of randomized studies using terlipressin as well as other vasocon-
strictors has shown that treatment with terlipressin is associated
with an improved short-term survival [214]. Most clinical trials
on the use of terlipressin have excluded patients with ongoing sep-
sis. The effectiveness of terlipressin in the treatment of HRS with
concomitant sepsis is unknown. Finally, treatment with terlipres-
sin in patients with type 2 HRS is also associated with an improve-
ment of renal function [209,215]. Nevertheless, there is still limited
information on the use of terlipressin in these patients.
Vasoconstrictors other than vasopressin analogues that have
been used in the management of type 1 HRS include noradrena-
line and midodrine plus octreotide, both in combination with
albumin. Midodrine is given orally at doses starting from 2.5 to
75 mg/8 h and octreotide 100
l
g/8 h subcutaneously, with an
increase to 12.5 mg/8 h and 200
l
g/8 h, respectively, if there is
no improvement in renal function. Although this approach has
been shown to improve renal function, the number of patients
reported using this therapy is very small [216,217]. Noradrena-
line (0.5–3 mg/h) is administered as a continuous infusion and
the dose is increased to achieve a raise in arterial pressure and
also improves renal function in patients with type 1 HRS [218].
Unfortunately, the number of patients treated with noradrenaline
is also small and no randomized comparative studies with a con-
trol group of patients receiving no vasoconstrictor therapy have
been performed to evaluate its efficacy.
There have been few studies on prevention of HRS. Short-term
treatment (4 week) with pentoxifylline (400 mg three times a
day) in a randomized double-blind study was shown to prevent
the development of HRS in patients with severe alcoholic hepati-
tis [219]. In a more recent study, long-term treatment with pen-
toxifylline was not associated with an improved survival but with
reduced frequency of some complications of cirrhosis, including
renal failure, yet this was not the primary endpoint of the study
[220]. More studies are needed to assess the usefulness of pen-
toxifylline in the prevention of HRS in patients with cirrhosis.
Finally, as discussed previously a randomized double-blind study
showed that norfloxacin (400 mg/day) reduced the incidence of
HRS in advanced cirrhosis [156].
5.4.2.2. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunts. Transjugular
intrahepatic portosystemic shunts (TIPS) have been reported to
improve renal function in patients with type 1 HRS [77,221].
However, the applicability of TIPS in this setting is very limited
because many patients have contraindications to the use of TIPS.
More studies are needed to evaluate the use of TIPS in patients
with type 1 HRS. TIPS has also been shown to improve renal
function and the control of ascites in patients with type 2 HRS
[90]. However, TIPS has not been specifically compared with
standard medical therapy in these latter patients.
5.4.2.3. Renal replacement therapy. Both hemodialysis or contin-
uous venous hemofiltration, have been used to treat patients
with type 1 HRS [222,223]. However, published information is
very scant and in most studies patients with type 1 HRS have not
been differentiated from patients with other causes of renal
failure. Moreover, no comparative studies have been reported
between renal replacement therapy and other methods of
treatment, such as vasoconstrictor drugs. Circumstances that call
for an immediate treatment with renal replacement therapy, such
as severe hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, and volume overload
are infrequent in patients with type 1 HRS, particularly in the
early stages. There are isolated reports and a small randomized
study suggesting that the so-called artificial liver support systems,
either the molecular adsorbents recirculating system (MARS) or
Prometheus, may have beneficial effects in patients with type 1
HRS [224,225]. However, these approaches should still be
considered investigational until more data are available.
5.4.2.4. Liver transplantation. Liver transplantation is the treatment
of choice for both type 1 and type 2 HRS, with survival rates of
approximately 65% in type 1 HRS [226]. The lower survival rate
compared to patients with cirrhosis without HRS is due to the
fact that renal failure is a major predictor of poor outcome after
transplantation. Moreover, patients with type 1 HRS have a high
mortality whilst on the waiting list and ideally should be given
priority for transplantation.
There seems to be no advantage in using combined liver–kid-
ney transplantation versus liver transplantation alone in patients
with HRS, with the possible exception of those patients who have
been under prolonged renal support therapy (>12 weeks)
[227,228].
JOURNAL OF HEPATOLOGY
Journal of Hepatology 2010 vol. 53
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397–417
411
Although not studied prospectively, treatment of HRS before
transplantation (i.e., with vasoconstrictors) may improve outcome
after transplantation [229]. The reduction in serum creatinine lev-
els after treatment and the related decrease in the MELD score
should not change the decision to perform liver transplantation
since the prognosis after recovering from type 1 HRS is still poor.
Recommendations Management of type 1 hepatorenal
syndrome
Drug therapy of type 1 hepatorenal syndrome Terlipressin
(1 mg/4–6 h intravenous bolus) in combination with albumin
should be considered the first line therapeutic agent for type
1 HRS. The aim of therapy is to improve renal function suffi-
ciently to decrease serum creatinine to less than 133
l
mol/L
(1.5 mg/dl) (complete response). If serum creatinine does not
decrease at least 25% after 3 days, the dose of terlipressin
should be increased in a stepwise manner up to a maximum
of 2 mg/4 h. For patients with partial response (serum creati-
nine does not decrease <133
l
mol/L) or in those patients with-
out reduction of serum creatinine treatment should be
discontinued within 14 days (Level A1).
Contraindications to terlipressin therapy include ischemic
cardiovascular diseases. Patients on terlipressin should be
carefully monitored for development of cardiac arrhythmias
or signs of splanchnic or digital ischemia, and fluid overload,
and treatment modified or stopped accordingly. Recurrence
of type 1 HRS after discontinuation of terlipressin therapy is
relatively uncommon. Treatment with terlipressin should be
repeated and is frequently successful (Level A1).
Potential alternative therapies to terlipressin include norepi-
nephrine or midodrine plus octreotide, both in association with
albumin, but there is very limited information with respect to the
use of these drugs in patients with type 1 HRS (Level B1).
Non-pharmacological therapy of type 1 hepatorenal syn-
drome: Although the insertion of TIPS may improve renal
function in some patients, there are insufficient data to sup-
port the use of TIPS as a treatment of patients with type 1 HRS.
Renal replacement therapy may be useful in patients who
do not respond to vasoconstrictor therapy, and who fulfill cri-
teria for renal support. There are very limited data on artificial
liver support systems, and further studies are needed before
its use in clinical practice can be recommended (Level B1).
Management of type 2 hepatorenal syndrome
Terlipressin plus albumin is effective in 60–70% of patients
with type 2 HRS. There are insufficient data on the impact of
this treatment on clinical outcomes (Level B1).
Liver transplantation
Liver transplantation is the best treatment for both type 1
and type 2 HRS. HRS should be treated before liver transplan-
tation, since this may improve post-liver transplant outcome
(Level A1).
Patients with HRS who respond to vasopressor therapy
should be treated by liver transplantation alone. Patients
with HRS who do not respond to vasopressor therapy, and
who require renal support should generally be treated by
liver transplantation alone, since the majority will achieve
a recovery of renal function post-liver transplantation. There
is a subgroup of patients who require prolonged renal
support (>12 weeks), and it is this group that should be
considered for combined liver and kidney transplantation
(Level B2).
Prevention of hepatorenal syndrome
Patients who present with SBP should be treated with
intravenous albumin since this has been shown to decrease
the incidence of HRS and improve survival (Level A1).
There are some data to suggest that treatment with pentox-
ifylline decreases the incidence of HRS in patients with severe
alcoholic hepatitis and advanced cirrhosis and treatment with
norfloxacin decreases the incidence of HRS in advanced cirrho-
sis, respectively. Further studies are needed (Level B2).
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Nicki van Berckel for her excel-
lent work in the preparation of the manuscript.
Disclosure: Kevin Moore recieved grant/research support from
Olsuka. He served as a consultant for the company and was paid
for his consulting services.
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