16 fluency Fluency is the ability to identify words accurately and to be able to read text quickly, with ease, pace,
automaticity, and expression. It is the conduit between word recognition and comprehension.
Fluency comes from practice in reading texts that primarily contain familiar, sight words so that the
student will encounter few unfamiliar words. As they develop fluency, students read expressively,
with proper phrasing and punctuation, and gain more meaning from the text.
grapheme A grapheme is a letter or a cluster of letters that represent a phoneme (see Phoneme) in a word.
For example, single letters often represent a phoneme (e.g., c, g, t, p) but digraphs (e.g., sh, ch) are
common and 3 or 4 letters can also represent a single phoneme occasionally (e.g. ‘igh’ in ‘light’ or
‘eigh’ in ‘eight’).
grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence Grapheme-to-phoneme correspondence is the association between a grapheme and its
corresponding phoneme. For example, when a student sees the letter ‘d’ and articulates the sound
/d/ (as in dog). It may also be known (less precisely), as Letter-Sound Correspondence or Sound-
Symbol Relationships.
morpheme A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning within words, consisting of prefixes, suffixes, and
roots. Words are made up of one or more morphemes. Morphemic knowledge refers to the
understanding of how morphemes can be used to form words.
morphology Morphology is the study of word structures and the patterns (e.g., prefixes, roots, and suffixes) of
how words are formed, and how words are related to each other in the same language.
multimodality Multimodality refers to the use of a combination of multiple sensory and communicative modes,
such as auditory, visual, audio, gestural, tactile and spatial.