$2 mm on TEE is
therefore considered to be an atheroma.
331
Aortic atherosclerosis has been classified on the basis of plaque
characteristics of thickness, presence or absence of mobile compo-
nents, and presence or absence of ulceration. Plaque thickness is
considered to be a more objective and reliable measure of atheroma
severity than is plaque morphology. Therefore, most grading systems
are based on the maximal plaque thickness in the most diseased
segment. Because there is currently no standard or universal grading
system for reporting the severity of atherosclerosis, the grading system
outlined in
Table 26
and illustrated in
Figure 56
was devised. This clas-
sification scheme, based on a review of multiple existing
schemes,
344,351-363
represents a unanimous consensus of the
writing committee. In this scheme, grades 1 to 4 represent
progressive increases in maximum atheroma thickness from none
to severe. Instead of the terms mild, moderate, and severe, some
imagers may prefer the terms small, moderate, and large. Until any of
these grading systems has been correlated with outcomes in a large
prospective study, we recommend classifying aortic atheroma as
simple or complex on the basis of the presence or absence of
mobile components or ulceration(s). Although semiquantitative, the
observations used in this simple classification (atheroma thickness,
Figure 55
Transesophageal echocardiogram with a cross-
section of a normal mid-descending thoracic aortic wall, which
appears as two parallel echogenic lines separated by a relatively
hypoechoic space. The inner line (white arrow) represents the
luminal-intimal interface, and the outer line (black arrow) repre-
sents the medial-adventitial interface.
Table 26
Grading system for severity of aortic
atherosclerosis
Grade
Severity
(atheroma
thickness)
Description
1
Normal
Intimal thickness < 2 mm
2
Mild
Mild (focal or diffuse) intimal
thickening of 2–3 mm
3
Moderate
Atheroma >3–5 mm (no mobile/
ulcerated components)
4
Severe
Atheroma >5 mm (no mobile/
ulcerated components)
5
Complex
Grade 2, 3, or 4 atheroma plus
mobile or ulcerated
components
164 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
presence or absence of mobile components, and presence or absence
of ulceration) are relatively objective and reproducible.
Furthermore, we, like most authors, designate any plaque,
regardless of thickness, to be complex if there are mobile components
or ulcerations. One group subdivided mobile lesions as (1) discrete
1- to 2-mm mobile lesions; (2) long, slender lesions that move freely
in the pulsatile flow of the aorta; and (3) large masses that rock in
place with aortic blood flow.
330
However, a simpler and more widely
used classification has also been proposed by Thenappan et al.
362
In
this scheme, plaques are considered ‘‘stable’’ when they are calcified,
immobile, echodense, and homogeneous and lack signs of ulceration.
They are considered ‘‘unstable’’ if they are mobile, nonhomogeneous,
ulcerated, or spongiform. Another group derived a ‘‘total plaque
burden score’’ from the addition of the circumferential extent of the
plaque to its thickness.
360
The major limitation of the existing classification systems, including
ours, is the failure to account for the overall plaque burden in terms of
its extent over the length of the thoracic aorta or a segment of the
aorta. Therefore, it is recommended to report whether the atheromas
are localized or diffuse.
B. Imaging Modalities
1. Echocardiography.
Until the advent of TEE, the aorta was an
underrecognized source of systemic embolism. Now, because of
its ability to obtain high-resolution images of the aortic intima-
lumen interface and detect mobile components, calcification, and
ulceration,
364
TEE has become the procedure of choice for both
detecting aortic atheroma and assessing atheroma size and
morphology.
Important plaque features associated with an increased risk for
embolization are protrusion of the plaque into the aortic lumen
$4 mm, often with an irregular plaque surface (sometimes resem-
bling a ‘‘seabed,’’ especially using 3D echocardiography),
365
ulcera-
tion,
and
superimposed
mobile
components.
Additionally,
hypoechoic atheromas may represent noncalcified, lipid-laden pla-
ques that are prone to rupture and thrombosis, although ultrasound
is not a reliable discriminator of plaque composition. To define the
location of plaques accurately and reproducibly, the distance of the
probe tip from the teeth (incisors) should be noted.
Nevertheless, TEE has several shortcomings. Its resolution may be
compromised by near-field distortion, a limitation inherent in any ul-
trasound technique: the anterior third of the aorta in cross-section is
often less well imaged because it is adjacent to the esophagus and
thus in the near field of the transducer. In addition, air in the trachea
and right main stem bronchus often creates a blind spot that may
limit visualization of the distal ascending aorta and proximal aortic
arch. In addition, determination of plaque extent and/or complexity
may be limited when using (2D TEE), because only one plane can be
visualized or measured at a time. Single-plane views may not appre-
ciate an asymptomatic plaque and may mistake a single lobulated
plaque for two separate plaques. Piazzese et al.
366
demonstrated
that 3D TEE provides superior visualization of the number,
morphology, volume, and spatial extent of aortic atheromas
compared with 2D TEE.
Although atherosclerosis of the aorta is occasionally detected on
TTE from the suprasternal view, TTE is not a reliable technique for
the detection or characterization of atheroma.
2. Epiaortic Ultrasound (EAU).
Because atherosclerosis of the
ascending aorta is associated with an increased risk for perioperative
stroke,
360,365,367-371
some centers use intraoperative measures to try
to reduce the incidence of cerebral injury and neurocognitive
deficits.
367,370,372,373
Three approaches have been used: digital
palpation of the aorta, TEE, and EAU.
353,368,374,375
Several
investigators have demonstrated that EAU is superior to both
manual palpation and TEE for detecting atheroma in the ascending
aorta
and
arch.
368,375,376
Its
high
sensitivity
and excellent
reproducibility make it a clinically useful tool.
377
Compared with
TEE, EAU has better resolution, less artifact, no blind spot, and
Figure 56
Four transesophageal echocardiographic images demonstrating different degrees of aortic atherosclerosis: (A) Normal
(see
Figure 54
). (B) Mild atherosclerosis. (C) Moderate atherosclerosis, with a plaque thickness of <4 mm. (D) Severe/complex athero-
sclerosis with a plaque thickness that is >5 mm (large arrow). Small arrow indicates a mobile component of the plaque.
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 165
superior detection of disease in the mid and distal ascending aorta.
Moreover, EAU also appears to be superior to preoperative CT for
this purpose.
378
For a more detailed discussion of EAU, the reader
is referred to the excellent guidelines on this topic.
379
Nevertheless, despite the strengths of EAU, intraoperative TEE is
still used more often than EAU for several reasons. First, at many cen-
ters TEE is routinely used in cardiac surgery to monitor volume and
ventricular function and to evaluate the adequacy of the surgical pro-
cedure, so it has become the most common way aortic atheromas are
detected. Second, despite its potential superiority, EAU is less widely
available in most operating rooms than is TEE, and therefore surgeons
and anesthesiologists have less experience working with it than with
TEE. Nevertheless, EAU should be available in instances in which
TEE is contraindicated or the rare instances in which the TEE probe
cannot be inserted. In addition, some groups perform EAU before
nonaortic surgery (e.g., coronary bypass grafting) in select ‘‘high-risk’’
patients (for atherosclerosis), including those aged > 75 years, with
peripheral vascular disease, with histories of cerebrovascular disease,
with palpable calcifications on the ascending aorta, and with findings
on TEE. The finding of prominent atheromas may lead to modifica-
tions of surgical techniques.
During an epiaortic scan, mapping of the distribution of aortic ath-
eromas should be performed. The ascending aorta may be divided
into proximal, middle, and distal thirds. Each segment may have
atheroma in its anterior, posterior, lateral, and medial walls, and de-
tails of plaque location should be conveyed to the surgeon.
380
3. CT.
Multidetector computed tomographic angiography of the aorta
can also be used to detect aortic atheroma. Its sensitivity, specificity, and
overall accuracy for identifying severe aortic atheroma approaches that
of TEE.
381,382
The degree of x-ray attenuation may be used to estimate
the composition of atherosclerotic plaque.
383
Calcified plaque appears
as a light, high-attenuation signal, whereas lipid-rich or fibrous plaque
appears as hypoattenuated dark signals within the vessel wall.
However, quantification is limited by calcium-provoked ‘‘blooming ar-
tifacts,’’ which may lead to overestimation of calcified plaques.
381
One
potential advantage of MDCT is its ability to image the entire aorta in a
continuous manner, which is not possible by TEE (including areas
poorly visualized by TEE), allowing the assessment of aortic plaque
burden in the entire thoracic aorta in a semiquantitative fashion.
384
Although MDCT can identify high-risk atherosclerotic features before
cardiac surgery, unlike TEE and EAU, it cannot be used in the operating
room during surgery. Other limitations of MDCT are the relatively high
radiation dose associated with its use and the requirement for contrast
agents for aortic imaging. However, newer computed tomographic im-
aging techniques may require lower radiation doses in the evaluation of
the aorta.
4. MRI.
MRI, another alternative for detecting and evaluating aortic
atherosclerosis, can supply information about plaque characteris-
tics.
385,386
However, MRI has limited utility for assessing the
mobile thrombi that are often superimposed on plaques. Moreover,
its spatial resolution is inferior to that of CT.
387
Compared with
TEE, MRI overestimates plaque thickness and consequently classifies
more patients as at high risk (
$4-mm plaque thickness).
388
In addi-
tion, whereas transesophageal echocardiographic measurements of
aortic plaque are very reproducible, the reproducibility of MRI mea-
surements is less well established. Thus, this technology has not yet
gained wide clinical acceptance and is a less cost-effective method
for detection of aortic atherosclerosis. Nevertheless, MRI remains
promising because of unique potential to characterize plaque compo-
sition,
383
which is more reliable than TEE for this purpose. Both
contrast-enhanced and noncontrast MRI techniques have been devel-
oped, but most remain in the nonclinical realm at this time.
C. Imaging Algorithm
TEE, CT, and MRI are powerful diagnostic tools for visualizing aortic
atheromas. In patients with stroke or peripheral embolism, TEE is the
technique of choice because it affords excellent assessment of the size
Table 27
Choice of imaging modality for aortic atherosclerosis
Modality
Recommendation
Advantages
Disadvantages
TEE
First-line
Most frequently used method
Procedure of choice for detecting atheroma,
atheroma size and mobility
High resolution of aortic intima-lumen
interface
Very reproducible
Near-field distortion
Not reliable for plaque composition
Distal ascending aorta, proximal arch may be
limited
CT
Second-line
Sensitivity, specificity, accuracy for identi-
fying atheroma approaches that of TEE
Able to image entire aorta, assess overall
plaque burden
Cannot be used in OR during surgery
Radiation exposure
Requires contrast agent
Limited utility for assessing mobile thrombi
MRI
Second-line
Provides information about plaque composi-
tion
Can image the entire aorta
Limited utility for assessing mobile thrombi
Spatial resolution inferior to CT
Overestimates plaque thickness compared
with TEE
Limited use
No generally accepted protocol for aortic im-
aging
Epiaortic echocardiography Third-line
Superior to TEE for detecting atheroma in
ascending aorta and arch in OR
Compared with TEE, better resolution, fewer
artifacts, no blind spot
Not widely or routinely used in cardiac surgery
Experience of surgeons and anesthesiolo-
gists is less than with TEE
OR, Operating room.
166 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
and mobility of complicated plaques. CT can image the entire aorta
(including areas poorly visualized by TEE) but requires exposure to ra-
diation and the use of contrast agents. MRI can noninvasively distin-
guish various components of the plaque, such as fibrous cap, lipid
core, and thrombus thereby assessing plaque stability. Serial MRI or
CT can be used to monitor progression or regression of atheromatous
plaques after therapy with lipid-lowering agents. The relative
advantages and disadvantages of the various imaging techniques for
atherosclerosis are summarized in
Table 27
.
D. Serial Follow-Up of Atherosclerosis (Choice of Tests)
In clinical practice, TEE is the technique of choice for the follow-up of
thoracic aortic atherosclerosis because it affords excellent assessment
of the size and mobility of complicated plaques. MRI can noninva-
sively distinguish various components of the plaque, such as fibrous
cap, lipid core, and thrombus, thereby assessing plaque stability.
In T2-weighted images, fibrous cap and thrombus are seen as a
high-intensity signal, and lipid core is seen as a low-intensity signal.
Although CT can distinguish calcified plaque from fibrolipid plaque,
this method is less efficient than MRI for the characterization of
atherosclerotic plaque composition, and standard MDCT without
electrocardiographic gating does not assess plaque mobility.
TEE is the imaging modality of choice for diagnosing aortic athero-
sclerosis and atheromas. Advantages of TEE over other noninvasive mo-
dalities (CT and MRI) include the ability to accurately measure the size
and mobility of plaque and overlying thrombi in real time. When athero-
sclerosis is present, the severity and location of the most severe ather-
omas should be reported. In patients in whom the suprasternal
window is optimal, plaques in the aortic arch may be detected by TTE.
VIII. AORTITIS
A. Mycotic Aneurysms of the Aorta
Mycotic aneurysms of the thoracic aorta are extremely uncommon,
but they are important because they are potentially life threatening.
Untreated, a mycotic aneurysm may lead to septic thromboembolism,
rupture, or death. Osler
389
coined the term mycotic aneurysm in 1885,
describing a mushroom-shaped aneurysm that resembled a fungal
growth. However, this term is a misnomer, because the vast majority
of infected aneurysms are bacterial and not fungal. So the term has
since been broadened to include all aneurysms with an infectious
component.
Figure 57
This transesophageal echocardiogram of the prox-
imal descending thoracic aorta obtained in a patient with aortic
valve endocarditis demonstrates an early incipient aneurysm
(frame 1) and rapid enlargement. Frame 2 was taken 2 weeks
later, at the time of aortic valve replacement, and frame 3 was
taken at the time of staged aortic surgery 4 weeks after the initial
TEE. AN, Aneurysm; AO, aorta.
Table 28
Mycotic aneurysm: key points
Aorta should be evaluated in all patients with infective endocar-
ditis
Can lead to saccular (more common) or fusiform aneurysm
Normal appearance of adjacent regions of aorta
Echocardiography, CT, and MR all preferable to aortography
PET may be useful
Requires close follow-up because progression is often rapid
PET, Positron emission tomography.
Table 29
Noninfectious aortitis: etiologies
TA
GCA (temporal arteritis)
Spondyloarthropathies (ankylosing spondylitis and Reiter
syndrome)
ANCA associated (Wegener’s disease, polyarteritis nodosum,
microscopic polyangiitis)
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Rheumatoid arthritis
Behc¸et syndrome
Cogan syndrome
Relapsing polychondritis
Sarcoidosis
Idiopathic aortitis
ANCA, Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; GCA, giant cell arteritis;
TA, takayasu arteritis.
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 167
Mycotic aortic aneurysms most often result from septic emboli in
patients with left-sided endocarditis, so one should consider imaging
the thoracic aorta to exclude mycotic aneurysms in patients with
mitral or aortic valve endocarditis. Aortic seeding may also result
from bloodborne dissemination from an infection anywhere in the
body. Mycotic aneurysms may also be associated with aortic trauma
caused by accidents, surgical manipulation, or invasive diagnostic pro-
cedures.
390,391
The classical triad of fever, abdominal, back, or chest pain, and
leukocytosis is present in the majority of patients.
392,393
Aortic
infections should be considered when such classic signs and
symptoms cannot otherwise be explained. Therefore, suspicion
must be heightened in immunosuppressed patients and in those
with open or endovascular implants.
394,395
Once suspected, the
diagnosis should be pursued vigorously because progression is the
rule.
Figure 57
illustrates such a case and also emphasizes the potential
for rapid progression.
Aortography is no longer the diagnostic modality of choice, but
characteristic aortographic features include either saccular or fusiform
aortic aneurysm with a normal appearance of the adjacent regions of
the aorta.
396,397
However, these findings are nonspecific and
unreliable. Moreover, aortography images only the aortic lumen
(and not the aortic wall) and could potentially induce an aortic
rupture when the wall is fragile.
Echocardiography, CT, and MRI are now the preferred imaging
techniques. Contrast-enhanced CT may reveal a change in aortic
size, saccular aneurysm formation, periaortic nodularity, and/or air
in the aortic wall. However, milder degrees of inflammation or aortic
wall edema may be missed.
394,398,399
MRI with gadolinium contrast
enhancement is another useful imaging modality. In addition to
detection of an aneurysm, associated aortitis may appear as vessel
wall edema, enhancement, or wall thickening. Specific protocols
have been developed, such as the ‘‘edema-weighted’’ technique,
that may detect even small changes within and around the aortic
wall.
394
In addition, these noninvasive imaging techniques may allow
rapid exclusion of other aortic pathologies that may resemble aortic
infection, such as aortic dissection, IMH, and PAU.
Recently,
18
F fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography
appears to hold promise for diagnosing mycotic aneurysms and graft
infections by detecting hypermetabolic activity, as elevated
18
F fluoro-
deoxyglucose uptake within the aortic wall is suggestive of active
vascular infection.
379
Response to antibiotic therapy can also be
monitored as a decrease in
18
F fluorodeoxyglucose uptake within
the aortic wall suggests improvement.
400
Table 28
lists several key points concerning mycotic aneurysms.
B. Noninfectious Aortitis
TA and GCA, although rare, are the most common of a group of dis-
orders that can be categorized as noninfectious aortitis (
Table 29
).
394
A detailed discussion of the imaging features of each of these is
beyond the scope of this document, but a brief discussion of TA
and GCA follows.
TA is a rare, large-vessel vasculitis of unknown etiology, predomi-
nantly affecting young women (age < 40 years). The thoracic aorta
and its major branches are most often affected,
401
but the pulmonary
arteries and abdominal aorta may also be affected. TA is characterized
by a nonspecific inflammatory process that can progress to stenotic,
even occlusive lesions secondary to intimal thickening.
401,402
Progression of the disease can lead to destruction of the media,
leading to aneurysm formation or rupture. 4> Dostları ilə paylaş: |