is compatible with aortic injury. The most significant CXR findings
include, but are not limited to, widened mediastinum, an obscured
aortic knob, rightward deviation of the trachea or nasogastric tube,
and opacification of the aortopulmonary window. A more complete
list of CXR findings seen in BAI is shown in
Table 20
.
2. Aortography.
As mentioned, selective contrast aortography was
long considered to be the reference standard examination for the diag-
nosis of traumatic aortic injury. Compared with necropsy, prior reports
claimed
sensitivity,
specificity,
and
accuracy
approaching
100%,
296,299,306
but with the introduction of CT and TEE, the
failings of aortography became readily apparent. Indeed, modern CT
and TEE are able to identify minimal injuries such as intimal tears,
which constitute up to 10% of BAIs, whereas such injuries cannot be
detected by contrast aortography. Moreover, significant interobserver
variability in the interpretation of aortographic images has been
reported. On an aortogram, the diagnosis of an intimal injury
requires the demonstration of an intimal irregularity or filling defect
caused by an intimal flap.
307
The presence of contrast media outside
the lumen of the aorta is an important sign of transmural laceration:
when the leak is contained, it may be termed a pseudoaneurysm,
whereas free extravasation indicates frank rupture.
307
Diagnostic pit-
falls of aortography for blunt thoracic aortic injury include the ductus
diverticulum, the aortic spindle (a short segment of fusiform dilatation
of the aorta just distal to the isthmus), atherosclerotic disease, artifacts
from streaming or mixing of contrast media, and motion artifacts.
3. CT.
The introduction of multidetector computed tomographic angi-
ography, with up to eightfold reduction in scan times, made whole-
body CT technically feasible,
308,309
and over the past decade, CT has
almost completely replaced aortography and TEE as the first-line imag-
ing test for BAI.
300-304
Some of the advantages of MDCT include
Table 21
CT findings in blunt traumatic thoracic aortic injury
Direct signs
Contrast extravasation
Intimal flaps
Pseudoaneurysm formation
Filling defects (e.g., mural thrombus)
Indirect signs
Periaortic hematomas
Mediastinal hematomas
Table 22
Advantage of TEE in blunt traumatic thoracic aortic
injury
1. Highly accurate in region of aortic isthmus (most common region
for BAI)
2. Can be performed at bedside or in OR
3. Can be performed in unstable patients who need emergency OR
and when there is not time for CT
4. No radiation exposure
5. Does not require contrast; safe in renal insufficiency
6. Can assess other cardiac injuries and cardiac function
OR, Operating room.
Table 23
Disadvantages of TEE in blunt traumatic thoracic
aortic injury
Difficulty imaging distal ascending aorta
Difficulty evaluating arch vessels
Operator dependent (requires skilled operator)
Training and experience required
Availability
Not always safe in patients with facial, cervical, spine, oropharynx,
or esophageal injuries
Reverberation artifact
160 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
superb diagnostic accuracy, availability, and speed. Importantly, at most
trauma centers, CT of the thorax in patients at risk for BAI is not
performed as a sole examination but is rather integrated into a
whole-body CT—the so-called trauma panscan—with unique ability to
identify associated injuries in the same diagnostic sitting (brain, facial
bones, neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis). This latter technique has been
shown to improve survival and reduce imaging time.
307,310,311
Computed tomographic findings (both direct and indirect signs) in
BAI are listed in
Table 21
. Nonaxial reconstructions of thin-section sli-
ces and careful evaluation of the aortic wall as well as exclusion of
periaortic hemorrhage or hematomas may help in making an accurate
diagnosis.
303,310
Although the presence of periaortic hemorrhage
should lead to careful evaluation of the aorta for evidence of injury,
conversely, the absence of a hematoma does not exclude aortic
injury. Therefore, both aortography and TEE still have a role,
especially in difficult cases and instances in which CT findings are
equivocal.
280,303,310
In addition, there is still a role for aortography
in some patients in whom branch-vessel injury is suspected, when
there is a need to evaluate and manage active bleeding at other sites
and in the planning of endovascular management.
304
4. TEE.
Because of its wide availability, portability, and accuracy, as
well as the fact that no contrast medium is required, TEE is also a
powerful diagnostic tool that gained popularity as a first-line study
in the 1990s,
312-319
with reported sensitivities and specificities as
high as 100% and 98%, respectively.
315
However, subsequent studies
failed to confirm such high accuracy of TEE in suspected BAI.
320-322
Thus, its use as a first-line diagnostic tool is controversial. Furthermore,
TEE may fail to adequately image the distal ascending aorta (TEE’s
known blind spot) and may not identify all of the branches of the
aortic arch.
317-320
TEE is heavily operator dependent, and
inexperience can lead to both false-positive and false-negative results.
Moreover, a skilled operator may not be available at night and on
weekends. Additionally, patients with craniofacial trauma, cervical
spine injuries, and airway concerns may not be suitable candidates
for TEE. Last, as described above, patients with multiple traumatic in-
juries are likely to better served by a comprehensive computed tomo-
graphic scan rather than multiple individual diagnostic examinations.
One important role for TEE may be its ability to follow small or
questionable intimal injuries that may not be seen well with either
aortography or CT. In addition, TEE may be the only modality suitable
for patients who require immediate laparotomy to control ongoing
hemorrhage before CT.
Tables 22 and 23
list some of the relative
advantages and disadvantages of TEE for evaluating BAI.
Transesophageal echocardiographic findings in patients with BAIs
include (1) dilatation in the region of the isthmus, (2) an abnormal
aortic contour, (3) an intraluminal medial flap, (4) a pseudoaneurysm,
(5) a crescentic or circumferential thickening of the aortic wall (IMH),
and (6) mobile linear echodensities attached to the aortic wall consis-
tent with an intimal tear or a thrombus. Similar findings are seen in
patients with spontaneous aortic dissection, but there are some
important differences. With traumatic aortic injury, the medial flap
tends to be thicker, has greater mobility, and is typically perpendicular
(rather than parallel) to the aortic wall so that there is an absence of
two channels. The aortic contour is usually deformed because of
the presence of a localized pseudoaneurysm. Last, with traumatic
aortic injury, the findings are confined to the isthmus region, rather
than propagating distally all the way to the iliac arteries.
5. IVUS.
There is limited information on the role of IVUS for evalu-
ating BAI. IVUS, like helical CT but unlike aortography, can visualize
the lumen and both the aortic wall and the periaortic structures.
Although limited by the absence of a reference-standard technique,
a recent study found that IVUS performed better than catheter
Table 24
Recommendations for choice of imaging modality for aortic trauma
Modality
Recommendation
Advantages
Disadvantages
CT
First-line
Diagnostic test of choice
Sensitivity for detecting aortic trauma ap-
proaches 100%; negative predictive value ap-
proaches 100%
Patients with multiple injuries; whole-body CT
feasible (‘‘trauma panscan’’)
Images lumen, aortic wall, and periaortic struc-
tures
False-positive results based on presence of
mediastinal blood alone is substantial
Contrast streaming artifact and motion artifact
TEE
Second-line
Wide availability, portability, rapid
May be first-line in some hemodynamically
unstable patients
Can be performed during laparotomy, other
procedures
Can detect minimal injuries (up to 10% of BAIs)
Failure to image distal ascending aorta/proximal
arch in some patients
Requires immediate presence of skilled operator
Aortography
Second-line
May be useful when CT is uninterpretable or
inconclusive
Invasive, time consuming, requires specialized
team, and transfer to catheterization laboratory
False-positive and false-negative results
Interobserver variability in interpretation
IVUS
Third-line
Can image lumen, aortic wall, periaortic struc-
tures
Can be performed by the operating team
Accuracy not yet proved in large clinical series
MRI
Third-line
Useful primarily for chronic phase and serial ex-
aminations
Examination times relatively long
Not suitable for unstable patients
Limited data available
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 161
aortography in patients who had equivocal computed tomographic
findings.
323
A decided disadvantage of IVUS is its limited field of
view. In addition, the high cost of disposable transducers and the inva-
sive nature limit IVUS to a problem-solving tool at present.
323
6. MRI.
Until very recently, MRI has had limited applicability in the
evaluation of acute aortic trauma. Its examination times are long, and
access to patients is limited while they are in the magnet. MRI is not
commonly used to evaluate injury to the thoracic great vessels in the
acute phase, and few data are available in this setting. It can, however,
be particularly useful for detecting the hemorrhagic component of a
traumatic lesion. MRI is also an excellent method in the chronic phase
of aortic trauma when serial examinations are required.
324,325
This is
especially true if there is a contraindication to computed tomographic
angiography. Modern MRI sequences allow both contrast and
noncontrast techniques. Although these noncontrast techniques
may be more time consuming, they may be of particular benefit in
more stable patients with renal insufficiency, in whom iodinated
contrast may be relatively contraindicated.
C. Imaging Algorithm
Contrast-enhanced MDCT is currently the preferred first-line imaging
technique for suspected BAI, especially for patients with multiple in-
juries. Injuries to several organ systems (e.g., the brain, cervical spine,
and abdomen and pelvis) can be detected in a matter of minutes, and
diagnostic accuracy in both the detection and exclusion of acute
traumatic aortic injury with both single-detector CT and MDCT is
quite high.
302-304
Very importantly, the negative predictive value
approaches 100% in some studies.
302
Although in most cases aortog-
raphy is not necessary, there may be a role when branch-vessel injury
is suspected and in the planning of endovascular therapy.
325
TEE and
aortography are reserved for instances in which computed tomo-
graphic findings are equivocal. In some hemodynamically unstable
patients, TEE may be a first-line technique, especially if CT requires
transportation to a remote area. Recommendations for choice of
imaging modality are listed in
Table 24
.
D. Imaging in Endovascular Repair
TEVAR is increasingly being used for acute aortic injury.
326,327
In the
past, TEVAR was used selectively in high-risk patients with significant
comorbidities. However, as experience with the technique has
increased, in many institutions TEVAR has become the preferred in-
terventional approach for BAI.
Imaging plays a key role when TEVAR is used to treat BAI.
Measurements of aortic diameter should be based on aortic measure-
ments
obtained
preoperatively
by
computed
tomographic
angiography or by IVUS. Length of graft coverage should be
based on intraoperative aortography or IVUS measurements.
Postprocedurally, aortography of the grafted segment is usually per-
formed. Follow-up imaging is based on guidelines for evaluating en-
dografting for nontraumatic aortic aneurysms, with computed
tomographic angiography performed at 48 hours, at the time of
discharge, and at 1, 6, and 12 months postprocedurally.
280
VI. AORTIC COARCTATION
Aortic coarctation is a relatively uncommon congenital cardiovascular
disorder. It is most commonly located just distal to the left subclavian
artery. Aortic coarctation causes reduced blood flow to the lower
body, which can present as hypertension and congestive heart failure
early in life, or may be identified when a search for a cause of hyper-
tension is performed later in life.
Patients with aortic coarctation also have a form of vasculopathy
with increased risk for aneurysm formation in the ascending aorta,
at the site of coarctation repair, and in the intracranial vasculature.
328
A BAV is present in >50% of patients with aortic coarctation.
The diagnosis of aortic coarctation can usually be made using TTE
with Doppler imaging. The area of coarctation is often identified by
2D transthoracic echocardiographic techniques with color-flow imag-
ing. Pulsed-wave Doppler assessment of the abdominal aorta in
patients with severe aortic coarctation demonstrates reduced and
Figure 51
Abdominal aortic pulsed-wave Doppler examination
in a patient with severe aortic coarctation demonstrates
reduced and delayed systolic forward flow and persistent for-
ward flow during diastole (yellow arrow). This ‘‘diastolic tail’’ is
a pathognomonic sign of a hemodynamically significant coarc-
tation.
Figure 52
Computed tomographic 3D volume-rendered recon-
struction of the thoracic aorta demonstrating severe aortic
coarctation (arrow) and extensive collateral formation.
162 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
delayed forward flow in systole as well as continuation of forward flow
in diastole (
Figure 51
) compared with the normal pattern of brisk for-
ward flow in systole followed by early reversal of flow in diastole in per-
sons without coarctation. Pulsed-wave Doppler is also used to measure
the velocity in the descending aorta proximal to the region of obstruc-
tion. The peak and mean velocities and peak, mean, and maximum
instantaneous gradients across the region of coarctation are measured
by continuous-wave Doppler techniques and are used to help deter-
mine the severity of obstruction. It can be difficult to determine the
severity of aortic coarctation obstruction by Doppler echocardio-
graphic techniques alone when extensive collateral vessels are present.
The exact site, length, degree of obstruction, and presence and extent
of collateral vessels are best confirmed by CT or MRI (
Figure 52
).
Dilatation of the ascending aorta in patients with aortic coarctation
is generally easily visualized by TTE, but dilatation of the coarctation
repair site in the descending thoracic aorta is not well seen by TTE
(
Figure 53
). These associated aortic complications emphasize the
importance of multimodality imaging in patients with both unoper-
ated and repaired aortic coarctation. Some key points related to multi-
modality imaging of coarctation are listed in
Table 25
.
A. Aortic Imaging in Patients with Unoperated Aortic
Coarctation
TTE can usually confirm the clinical diagnosis of aortic coarctation
and is used to identify associated cardiovascular disorders such as
BAV (present in >50% of patients with coarctation) and aortic dilata-
tion. CT or MRI is recommended at the time of initial evaluation to
determine the site and degree of obstruction and assess the aortic
Figure 54
Computed tomographic 3D volume-rendered recon-
struction of the thoracic aorta demonstrating features of prior
aortic coarctation repair, aortic arch hypoplasia, and an
ascending-to-descending bypass graft (asterisk).
Table 25
Coarctation of aorta: key points
Discrete narrowing of aortic lumen just distal to left subclavian
artery
Approximately 50% of patients with coarctation have BAVs
<10% of patients with BAVs have coarctation
Direct imaging of arch/proximal descending aorta often limited by
TTE
CT and MRI can best determine exact site, degree of obstruction,
and extent of collaterals
Doppler detects systolic flow acceleration/gradient with persis-
tence of gradient into diastole
Doppler gradients difficult to obtain by TEE because Doppler
beam is relatively perpendicular to flow
MRI can quantify gradient and collateral flow through velocity-
encoded phase-contrast sequences
Pseudocoarctation can be differentiated from true coarctation by
identifying high, elongated arch, kinking that lacks luminal nar-
rowing, and absence of enlarged collateral arteries
Figure 53
(A) Parasternal long-axis transthoracic echocardiogram in a patient with coarctation demonstrates marked dilatation of
the ascending aorta (AscAo). (B) Three-dimensional reconstruction of the thoracic aorta using MR angiography in a different patient
after coarctation repair demonstrating dilation of the proximal descending aorta, at the site of the prior repair (asterisk).
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 163
segments incompletely visualized by TTE. Patients with mild degrees
of coarctation who do not require intervention should undergo
annual TTE and periodic (every 3–5 years) CT or MRI to monitor
for changes in the aorta. TEE is generally not used for initial diagnosis
or follow-up of coarctation, because of its semi-invasive nature and
difficulty comparing degree of obstruction over time.
B. Postoperative Aortic Imaging in Coarctation
Patients with prior coarctation repair require regular informed cardio-
vascular follow-up and imaging to evaluate for clinical and cardiovas-
cular complications such as recurrent coarctation, ascending and
descending thoracic aortic dilatation, and aortic dissection.
329
Patients with complex recoarctation or coarctation and associated
cardiovascular disease that requires operative intervention, such as
coronary artery disease or aortic stenosis, may have an ascending-
to-descending aortic bypass graft placed. These grafts can be partially
visualized by TTE but require comprehensive imaging with CT or
MRI to determine patency (
Figure 54
).
VII. ATHEROSCLEROSIS
Various terms have been used to describe the appearance of atheroscle-
rotic lesions of the aorta on imaging. The simplest lesions are usually re-
ported as ‘‘atheroma’’ or ‘‘atheromatous plaque.’’ When mobile
components are seen attached to these plaques, the terms ruptured pla-
que, mobile plaque, mobile debris, and superimposed thrombi are used.
Some believe that mobile echodensities represent fibrous caps of
ruptured plaques,
330
but autopsy and surgically examined specimens
indicate that they are most often superimposed thrombi.
331-335
Supporting the latter conclusion, mobile lesions have been shown to
disappear after anticoagulant therapy.
336
Both necropsy
337
and
TEE
338,339
have demonstrated that the frequency and severity of
atherosclerotic plaque is lowest in the ascending aorta, greater in the
arch, and greatest in the descending thoracic aorta.
A growing body of evidence has established an association be-
tween echocardiographically demonstrated aortic atheroma and
embolic events, both cerebral and peripheral.
331,335,338,340-347
In
addition, thoracic aortic atherosclerosis has been identified as a
stronger predictor of significant coronary artery disease than are
conventional risk factors
348
and as a marker of increased mortality.
349
Aortic atherosclerosis has also been associated with cholesterol embo-
lization (blue-toe syndrome), stroke after coronary artery bypass sur-
gery, and catheter-related embolism after cardiac catheterization and
intra-aortic balloon pump insertion. Therefore, the detection of aortic
atherosclerosis on imaging has prognostic implications.
A. Plaque Morphology and Classification
On ultrasound examination, the normal aortic wall is seen as two par-
allel echogenic lines separated by a relatively hypoechoic space
(
Figure 55
). The inner line represents the luminal-intimal interface,
whereas the outer line represents the medial-adventitial border.
Thus, the distance between the lines reflects the combined thickness
of the intima and media, the ‘‘intimal-medial thickness,’’
350
which is
normally
#1 mm. Moreover, the normal aortic wall has a smooth,
continuous surface. Any irregular thickening of
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