Digital subtraction angiography of the aorta and its branches, pre-
viously the gold standard, only provides information relating to
luminal changes (ranging from smooth tapering stenosis to frank
occlusion), which are a late feature. MRI, CT, and echocardiography
can demonstrate homogeneous circumferential thickening of the
aortic wall with a uniform smooth internal surface, which is different
from the appearance of atherosclerosis
403,404
but may be
misdiagnosed as IMH. CT and MRI provide a more generalized
survey
of
the
aorta
and
its
proximal
branches
than
echocardiography, including the abdominal aorta and distal
pulmonary arteries, which are sometimes affected.
405
MRI may
show arterial wall edema, a marker of active disease.
406
In chronic
TA, the aortic wall may become calcified, which is best appreciated
by CT. Positron emission tomography is a promising technique that
may reveal the level of vascular inflammatory activity.
407
GCA is a systemic panarteritis that characteristically affects
middle-aged and elderly patients (age > 50 years).
408,409
Figure 58
MR images from a 54-year-old woman with elevated sedimentation rate and dilation of the descending aorta. Wall thick-
ening is well depicted in dark blood images (left, yellow arrow). Short tau inversion recovery (STIR) images (right) demonstrate bright
signals in the aortic wall (yellow arrow), a result consistent with edema. Surgical repair was performed in this patient, and histology
was consistent with GCA.
168 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
Although classically the temporal and/or other cranial arteries are
involved, the aorta and its major branches are affected in
approximately 10% to 18% of patients.
410,411
Dilatation of the
aortic root and ascending aorta are common and can lead to
aortic dissection or rupture, usually several years after the initial
diagnosis. If a diagnosis of extracranial GCA is suspected,
echocardiography, CT, or MRI is recommended. The finding of a
thickened aortic wall on CT or MRI indicates inflammation of the
aortic wall (
Figure 58
) and thus active disease.
412
Studies with posi-
tron emission tomography have suggested that subclinical aortic
inflammation is often present in patients with GCA.
413
IX. POSTSURGICAL IMAGING OF THE AORTIC ROOT AND
AORTA
Advances in diagnostic imaging techniques have allowed earlier diag-
nosis of and more prompt surgical intervention for thoracic aortic dis-
ease, which in turn has likely improved outcomes for both emergency
and elective surgery of the aorta. As a consequence increasing
numbers of patients are presenting for follow-up care.
For both aortic dissections and aneurysms involving the ascending
aorta, the surgeon usually replaces the ascending aorta with an inter-
position Dacron graft but leaves the native aortic root, arch, and de-
scending aorta behind. Thus, survivors of the initial repair may
remain at considerable risk for future aneurysmal dilatation and even-
tual rupture. Consequently, appropriate follow-up requires long-term
clinical monitoring and follow-up imaging to detect such complica-
tions and to allow timely surgical or percutaneous reintervention.
The foundation for such follow-up imaging is obtaining adequate
baseline imaging that provides a reliable reference for future compar-
isons of aortic size and appearance. Moreover, baseline imaging will
detect technical failures and improper or incomplete repairs with
the potential for subsequent complications.
A. What the Imager Needs to Know
To evaluate postoperative findings accurately, the imaging physician
must possess a general understanding of the surgical techniques
available to treat thoracic aortic diseases and awareness of the details
of the surgical procedure that was used in the individual patient. In
most instances, the postoperative image may differ in important
ways from that seen before the surgical intervention. It follows
that the expected postoperative image and any possible variations
as presented by the relevant imaging modality must be understood.
Only then can the spectrum of potential postsurgical complications
be accurately recognized and distinguished from the expected post-
operative appearance.
B. Common Aortic Surgical Techniques
Listed in
Tables 30 and 31
are some of the more common aortic
procedures and some of the alternative or less common
procedures. A brief discussion of some of the more common
procedures follows. The scope of this review does not permit
detailed discussion of modifications of standard procedures or of
less commonly used techniques.
1. Interposition Technique.
This currently standard technique in-
cludes excision of the diseased segment of the native ascending aorta
and its replacement with a polyester (Dacron) graft. The proximal
anastomotic site is often supracoronary, and the distal anastomotic
site is immediately proximal to the brachiocephalic artery. The anas-
tomotic sites are often reinforced with externally placed circumferen-
tial strips of Teflon felt.
2. Inclusion Technique.
The inclusion technique consists of an
aortotomy, placement of an artificial graft within the diseased native
aorta, and enclosing or ‘‘wrapping’’ the graft with the native aorta,
which is sutured around the graft. This procedure creates a potential
space between the graft and the native aortic wall, which has impor-
tant imaging implications. The use of this technique has diminished
significantly because improved graft materials have led to decreased
bleeding (this technique was used to provide a space into which
leakage through grafts could occur to minimize extensive bleeding
into the mediastinum).
3. Composite Grafts.
A composite graft, or conduit, is a synthetic
(commonly Dacron) aortic graft that includes a directly attached me-
chanical valve or bioprosthetic valve. With composite graft replace-
ment, the coronary ostia are dissected from the native aorta with a
rim of surrounding aorta (‘‘button technique’’), and each button is
then reanastomosed individually to the composite graft.
4. Aortic Arch Grafts.
For select patients with aortic arch involve-
ment, open surgery may range from partial to complete arch replace-
ment with or without debranching and reattachment of one or more
of the arch vessels.
5. Elephant Trunk Procedure.
Surgery for treatment of diffuse
thoracic aortic disease is commonly performed in a two-stage operation.
The first stage consists of repair of the ascending aorta and aortic arch
(with reconstruction of the great vessels); an extension of the aortic graft
is inserted into the lumen of the proximal descending thoracic aorta,
Table 30
Common aortic surgical procedures
1. Valveless ascending grafts
a. Interposition technique
b. Inclusion technique
2. Composite aortic grafts
3. Aortic arch grafts
4. Descending aortic grafts
5. Endovascular stent grafts
6. Resuspension of the aortic valve
7. Valve-sparing root replacement
8. Use of biologic adhesives and sealants
9. Coronary artery (button) reimplantation
Table 31
Less common aortic surgical procedures
1. ‘‘Elephant trunk’’ procedure
2. Cabrol shunt procedure
3. Cabrol coronary graft procedure
4. Aortic tailoring (aortoplasty)
5. Fenestration
6. Obliteration of false lumen (primary repair)
a. Glue aortoplasty
b. Insertion of foreign material
c. Thromboexclusion
7. Aortic girdling (wrapping the aorta with Dacron mesh)
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
Volume 28 Number 2
Goldstein et al 169
where it floats freely and is referred to as the ‘‘elephant trunk.’’ The sec-
ond stage of the operation consists of repair of the descending aorta us-
ing the elephant trunk for the proximal anastomosis of an open surgical
graft or as the proximal landing zone for an endovascular stent graft.
6. Cabrol Shunt Procedure.
The Cabrol shunt procedure is an
uncommon adjunct to the inclusion graft technique, performed to
prevent progressive bleeding into the potential space between the
graft and the native aortic wall, as described earlier. This procedure
consists of a surgically created shunt between this potential space
and the right atrium to alleviate any pressure in the perigraft space.
7. Technical Adjuncts.
For all types of grafts, circumferential felt or
pericardial rings are often used to buttress anastomoses. Felt pledgets
are also used to reinforce the graft or the native aortic wall at sites of
intraoperative cannula placement. These rings and pledgets have imag-
ing implications for each of the imaging modalities, such as otherwise
unexplained thickenings, reverberations, and acoustic shadowing.
A variety of adhesives, or biologic glues, have been used as an
adjunct to standard methods of achieving anastomotic hemostasis
(such as sutures and clips). These bioglues have also been used for re-
approximating layers of the dissected aorta and for strengthening
weakened aortic tissues by a ‘‘tanning’’ process. Although the value
of these tissue adhesives is recognized, there are reports of tissue
necrosis leading to false aneurysms.
414
Moreover, these substances
may produce edema, inflammation, and fibrosis, leading to thickening
of the aortic wall or adjacent tissues. Such thickening can be confused
with leakage and hematoma by imaging techniques.
C. Normal Postoperative Features
The details of the surgery that has been performed will determine the
appearance of the ascending aorta on prospective imaging studies.
There are only a few descriptions of the echocardiographic appear-
ance of the ascending aorta after reconstruction. More information
is available on computed tomographic and MRI findings. An aortic
interposition graft is visualized as a thin, corrugated tube with an echo-
density greater than that of the native aorta. There is usually an abrupt
change between the graft and the native aorta as felt strips that are
used to reinforce the anastomoses provide visual markers of those
borders. Occasionally there is angulation of the aortic graft, especially
near the anastomoses. These points of angulation are not clinically sig-
nificant but can mimic a dissection flap, especially on axial computed
tomographic images.
A small amount of perigraft thickening (<10 mm) is a common post-
operative finding. This presumably results from minor leakage at the
anastomotic suture lines created by needle holes. The uniform and
concentric distribution of this thickening helps differentiate it from
more serious leakage. Another mimicker of pathology can be seen at
the site of coronary anastomoses. When the coronary arteries are re-
sected with a rim of native aortic tissue (button technique), a focal bulge
at this site can be misinterpreted as an incipient pseudoaneurysm.
Importantly, the inclusion graft technique creates a potential space be-
tween the graft and its wrap, the native aorta. This space often contains
fluid and/or hematoma, which can be a normal finding with no clinical
significance, especially when <10 mm in thickness.
After repair of a type A dissection, a persistent dissection flap is
seen distal to the ascending aortic graft in 80% of patients.
40
This
persistence of a double-channel aorta after surgery is not considered
a complication, provided it does not increase in size. In chronic dissec-
tions, the residual dissection flap becomes thickened because of
collagen deposition and becomes less oscillatory or even immobile.
Many early postoperative CT studies show pleural or pericardial ef-
fusions, mediastinal lymph node enlargement, and/or left lobe atelec-
tasis. These findings diminish in frequency over time and presumably
represent normal postoperative findings without adverse clinical con-
sequences.
D. Complications after Aortic Repair
Total removal of the diseased aortic segment is seldom possible with
surgical repair of aortic lesions such as aneurysm and dissection, and
the anastomoses between graft and native aorta are potential sites for
late complications. Therefore, periodic postoperative surveillance by
cardiovascular imaging specialists who are familiar with aortic diseases
and surgical procedures cannot be overemphasized. Early detection
of complications can facilitate optimal management, including reop-
eration when appropriate. Potential postoperative complications are
listed in
Table 32
. An awareness of such complications, and the ability
to differentiate them from the spectrum of ‘‘normal’’ postoperative
findings, is obviously important. Some of the more common compli-
cations are discussed.
1. Pseudoaneurysm.
Pseudoaneurysm is an important early or
late complication that can occur after surgery for aneurysm dissection.
In the vast majority of patients, pseudoaneurysm is not associated
with any clinical symptoms.
415
The silent nature of these potentially
life-threatening complications emphasizes the need for surveillance
imaging. Pseudoaneurysms usually occur at anastomoses. Although
they can form at the site of needle holes even when the suture lines
are intact, more often they originate from partial dehiscence of the
proximal or distal suture lines or at the site of coronary reimplantation.
The size of the pseudoaneurysm, its change over time, and the pa-
tient’s symptoms and clinical status will determine management.
Small, sterile pseudoaneurysms can remain stable for years without
further intervention. Pseudoaneurysms are readily detectable by
both CT and MRI. TEE is also reliable for detecting pseudoaneurysms
of the aortic root and proximal ascending aorta but can miss lesions in
the distal ascending aorta because of the interposition of the trachea.
2. False Luminal Dilatation.
Surgery for type A aortic dissection is
usually limited to the ascending aorta. Distal to the ascending aortic
Table 32
Potential postoperative complications of aortic
surgery
1. Anastomotic leakage, disruption, dehiscence
2. Pseudoaneurysm (at proximal, distal, or coronary anastomotic
site)
3. Progressive AR
4. Involvement of aortic branches
5. Perigraft infection
6. Compression of graft by hematoma (inclusion technique)
7. Aneurysmal dilatation of false lumen (status post dissection
repair)
8. Compression or collapse of true lumen (by expanding false
lumen)
9. Frank rupture
10. Anastomotic stenosis
11. Development of recurrent dissection or aneurysm proximal to a
graft in patients in whom a supracoronary procedure has been
performed.
12. Aortoesophageal or aortopulmonary fistula
13. Graft herniation into thoracotomy defect
170 Goldstein et al
Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography
February 2015
graft, a dissection flap and a false lumen with demonstrable blood
flow are present in approximately 80% of patients.
40
Strictly
speaking, this is not a complication, but there is a potential for false
luminal expansion. Typically, the median diameter of the aortic
arch, descending thoracic aorta, and abdominal aorta are all mildly
enlarged after type A aortic dissection repair.
416
Although expansion
rates are low, progressive dilatation of the patent false lumen, facili-
tated by the poor condition of the weakened and thinned wall, often
occurs. This may result in late aortic rupture or collapse of the true
lumen. In the minority of patients, the false lumen can become throm-
bosed. Although the influence of thrombosis of the false lumen on
long-term survival remains speculative, it may be associated with
improved survival.
3. Involvement of Aortic Branches.
Extension of a dissection
flap and/or IMH into an aortic branch may result in luminal narrow-
ing or total obstruction. In addition, dilatation of a patent false lumen
and associated collapse of the true lumen may also affect the branch
vessels. These complications may occur in the coronary arteries,
supra-aortic vessels, or visceral vessels.
4. Infection.
Early- or late-onset infection complicates prosthetic
aortic graft insertion in 0.5% to 5% of patients. CT is considered
the standard imaging method for aortic graft infection.
417
The role
of TEE for detection for graft infection has not been thoroughly inves-
tigated.
E. Recommendations for Serial Imaging Techniques and
Schedules
The imaging modality of choice for evaluating the postoperative aorta
has not been clearly determined. Both CT and MRI are reasonable
choices. These techniques provide precise and reproducible measure-
ments of the native aorta diameter at any level and have the advan-
tage compared with TEE of including the supra-aortic and visceral
vessels in a single examination and providing reproducible landmarks
for comparing images from serial studies.
We consider contrast-enhanced CT to be the optimal diagnostic
tool for follow-up of patients after surgery for aortic disease. MRI is
also valuable for serial follow-up because image resolution is compa-
rable with that of CT. In some patients, MRI may be preferred because
neither radiation nor contrast media are required. This is especially
true in young patients (e.g., those with Marfan syndrome) because
the radiation exposure from serial examinations may be considerable.
TTE, although a routine study for many cardiology patients, is
limited in its utility to follow patients after aortic surgery. TTE provides
an adequate assessment of the aortic valve, aortic root, and proximal
ascending aorta but is limited in its ability to image the remainder of
the thoracic aorta.
TEE has some advantages over CT and MRI. It is portable, pro-
vides excellent images of the aortic root, can precisely assess the
morphology and function of the aortic valve, and provides informa-
tion on left ventricular function. However, it may not be able to
image the distal ascending aorta (which may be the site of the aortic
graft’s distal anastomosis), the proximal aortic arch, the proximal
aortic arch vessels, and the distal abdominal aorta. Moreover, it
cannot assess the relationship of aortic pseudoaneurysms to adja-
cent anatomic structures such as the lung or mediastinum. Last,
TEE is semi-invasive, which is a drawback for serial, repeated exam-
inations.
The plan for follow-up surveillance imaging should not be left to
other practitioners alone. Primary responsibility lie with the aortic
specialist (cardiac surgeon, cardiologist, or vascular surgeon) over-
seeing the evaluation and management of the patient. Ideally, there
should be a computer database into which the relevant clinical, surgi-
cal, and imaging details of every patient with thoracic aortic disease
are entered. The surveillance imaging modality and the frequency
of follow-up should be decided on the basis of the individual patient’s
clinical history, prior intervention, and rate of progression of the dis-
ease, outlined in
Table 5
. In general, patients with small aortas or
mild disease can be followed at less frequent intervals than are those
with larger aortas. Although it is reasonable to permit surveillance im-
aging examinations to be performed at sites close to the patient’s
home, ideally the images should be reviewed and the patient fol-
lowed by a provider or center with expertise and experience in the
management of thoracic aortic disease.
X. SUMMARY
In conclusion, the considerable advances in diagnostic imaging tech-
niques have greatly increased our understanding of thoracic aortic dis-
eases. The availability, cost/benefit ratio, and additive value of each
technique determine its indications. TTE continues to be the tech-
nique most used in clinical practice for aortic root assessment. CT
has the advantage of its high-resolution assessment of the entire aorta
and excellent accuracy on size measurements. MRI offers the greatest
morphologic and dynamic information of the aorta without radiation,
although in clinical practice it is less commonly available.
New advances such as time-resolved 3D phase-contrast velocity
(four-dimensional flow) on MRI, electrocardiographically gated
MDCT, and the use of contrast in echocardiographic studies, will
permit further improvement in the definition of biomechanical prop-
erties of the diseased aorta wall, which can be expected to influence
the prognostication and management of patients with aortic diseases.
NOTICE AND DISCLAIMER
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members. This report contains recommendations only and should
not be used as the sole basis to make medical practice decisions or
for disciplinary action against any employee. The statements and rec-
ommendations contained in this report are based primarily on the
opinions of experts, rather than on scientifically verified data. The
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