International Journal of Technology and Design Education 7: 161-180, 1997. 1997

The impact of schooling on real world thinking
Educational researchers have recently become more aware of the differences between how we learn in school and how we learn outside of school (Resnick, 1987). Resnick contends that schools teach students how to think in order to succeed in school but not how to think in order to succeed in daily life and work. Resnick uses four contrasts to make this point.

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  In schools we emphasize individual thinking while shared cognition is most important in daily life and work.
  
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  In schools we emphasize independent thinking that is done without the external support of books, notes, calculators, and other tools. In daily life and work we rely on books, manuals, job aids, computers, and other cognitive and physical tools to facilitate our thinking.
  
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  In schools we emphasize the manipulation of symbols and rule following in artificial contexts while thinking in daily life and work occurs in a rich contextual environment that includes objects, events, people, and many other variables that may facilitate the thinking process.
  
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  In schools we emphasize general, widely usable skills and theoretical principles that are believed to transfer to situations outside of schooling even though evidence suggests otherwise. In daily life and work, we use our practical knowledge to invent strategies and develop compe­tencies that are useful in specific situations.
  

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SCOTT D. JOHNSON


Resnick’s set of contrasts between learning that occurs in school and outside of school is a useful starting point for understanding why education has difficulty developing intellectual skills. Yet, her contrasts oversimplify the differences between learning in schools and learning in daily life and work. While Resnick’s description of schools seems accurate, we can also apply those same characteristics to formal training programs in business and industry (Sorohan, 1993). Also, not all learning that occurs in schools is as formal as Resnick implies. In formal educational institutions (i.e., public schools, technical institutes, private sector training centres) considerable learning takes place as students interact between classes, collaborate in study groups, and socialize during breaks and after class activities. Rather than try to dichotomize in-school and outside of school learning, it may be better to contrast those settings in terms of their degree of formality, that is, in terms of the differences between formal learning and informal learning. The “in-school” problems described by Resnick are characteristic of formal educational settings while the “outside of school” characteristics occur through informal learning, whether that learning occurs in school or else­where.
Characteristics of formal learning. Formal learning is usually class­room based and is highly structured. Part of the problem of formal education is that schools have been designed around the model of the factory. Students are viewed as raw materials that move through various processes until the desired product is achieved. The organization and traditions of schooling evolved from the industrial goal of efficiency. Learning goals, instruc­tional practices, and management strategies are designed to enhance efficiency. The “factory-model” of schooling can be seen in the connec­tion between common views of work and what actually goes on in schools through terms like homework, schoolwork, and seatwork (Marshall, 1988). Even the methods of reinforcement in schools, such as grades, are metaphors that suggest that students are “paid” for their performance (Marshall, 1988).
Building on Resnick’s four characteristics of typical school learning, the following list identifies many of the features that are characteristic of formal learning.

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  Formal learning emphasizes individual work and assessment. Working together is viewed as cheating.
  
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  The content taught in formal settings is designed for the near average student. This means that most students are given the same tasks to complete, irrespective of their ability levels and prior experience.
  
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  Formal learning is highly structured and inflexible. The curriculum, learning objectives, and specific competencies are determined prior to instruction.
  
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  Formal learning is teacher directed, authority driven, and builds on a “transmission” philosophy of education where knowledge is transferred from the mind of the teacher into the mind of the learner.
  
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  Formal learning places major emphasis on thought and minor emphasis on action.
  

LEARNING TECHNOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

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  Formal learning places major emphasis on theory and minor emphasis on application of that theory.
  

¥ Formal learning occurs in settings that lack the rich context of real life.