International Journal of Technology and Design Education 7: 161-180, 1997. 1997

Characteristics of informal learning. Not all learning takes place in schools; considerable learning takes place outside the control and confines of formal education (Brookfield, 1984; Caffarella & O’Donnell, 1987). It has been said that as much as 90 percent of workplace learning is informal (Sorohan, 1993). However, the myth that learning comes only from formal training programs is well-entrenched in the minds of many (Marsick & Watkins, 1991). We need to broaden our thinking about the nature of learning and realize that most of what we know is learned through informal experi­ences; primarily through work and play. When children build a fort for a make-believe game or imitate a friend, they are engaged in informal learning. When employees discuss a problem with a new manufacturing process during a break in production or watch a technician adjust and repair equipment in their work station, they are engaged in informal learning. Informal learning is a very powerful way to learn. Through informal learning we can gain new knowledge, develop or refine skills, and improve the way we think.
What makes informal learning so powerful? We learn so much from work and play activities because they occur in settings that are ideal for learning: settings that involve other people, real problems, and authentic tools and resources. When we learn informally, we gain understanding through expe­rience by trying out actions and then reinterpreting or reframing the expe­rience in light of the consequences of our actions (Schon, 1983). But merely experiencing is not enough, we must have the right type of experience. For example, the technician who has five years experience solving diffi­cult problems has a greater opportunity to develop troubleshooting skills than the technician who has thirty years experience replacing parts (Johnson, 1991). If the right opportunities are provided, these experiences can lead to substantial practical knowledge: knowing how, knowing what, and know­ing why (Jarvis, 1992). The following list describes some of the primary characteristics of informal learning that lead to practical knowledge.

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  Informal learning can occur at any time and place. Wherever it occurs, the natural environment provides a meaningful context in which to apply developing skills.
  
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  Informal learning usually involves interaction with others and develops skills in cooperation, collaboration, observation, sharing, and negotia­tion.
  
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  Informal learning is task or project oriented and therefore learning occurs on a “need to know” basis. By virtue of being activity-based, informal learning is motivational because it is self initiated and often involves imagination, games, and competition.
  
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  While informal learning can be guided or facilitated by authority figures (e.g., supervisors or parents), external control is usually absent.
  

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SCOTT D. JOHNSON


USING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMAL LEARNING TO DEVELOP INTELLECTUAL SKILLS
Based on the above discussion of formal and informal learning, one might conclude that we should do away with formal instruction and develop an infrastructure that supports informal learning. This, however, is not the case. Rather, a better conclusion is that we should incorporate what we know about informal learning into formal educational settings. This is exactly what numerous educators have proposed. See the chapters by McCormick and Jones for descriptions of specific studies that support this notion. Many inno­vative instructional models and strategies have been developed recently that build on various characteristics of informal learning. These new instruc­tional approaches include cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1989), situated learning (Lave & Wenger, 1990), reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984), anchored instruction (Bransford et al., 1990), communi­ties of learners (Brown & Campione, 1990), cooperative learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1991; Slavin, 1990), and work-based learning (Michigan Occupational Information Coordinating Committee, 1992). While the intent of this chapter is not to examine each of these approaches, we can gain insights from them to guide the reform of formal instruction.
Building on what we know about informal learning, it appears that four elements are critical for enhancing conceptual learning and devel­oping intellectual skills: (a) contextual learning, (b) peer-based learning, (c) activity-based practice, and (d) reflective practice. These four elements relate to the learning environment, the social aspect of learning, the learning task, and the learner. Instruction could be developed for each of these elements independently, although combining these elements will result in a more powerful learning environment.