International Journal of Technology and Design Education 7: 161-180, 1997. 1997
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Learning through reflective practice
“There is a big difference between having experiences and learning from them” (Marsick & Watkins, 1991, p. 11). Even if instruction occurs in rich contexts and involves interacting with peers while working on various activities, quality learning will not take place unless there is reflective introspection. People who do not reflect on their experience fail to learn from their experience (Jarvis, 1992). Although reflection is a critical aspect of learning, Jones points out in his chapter that self-evaluation and reflection are not features of many students’ technological capability. While students may be able to solve a technological problem, they typically proceed in a linear fashion with no reflection. Everyday practice is influenced by the reflective conversations we have about a situation (Schon, 1983). Strategic knowledge, or what is often called metacognition, is an important part of reflective practice and an important factor in intelligence, learning, and problem solving. According to Brown (1978), “the ability to monitor one’s own understanding . . . is an essential pre-requisite for all problem solving ability” (p. 83). Bransford (1979) extended this idea a step further when he stated that “the ability to plan and evaluate our own learning strategies seems to be a hallmark of intelligent activity” (p. 244). While most educators agree that learners should be aware of their own thinking, the merits of teaching metacognition directly versus indirectly have been debated. There appears to be a growing consensus that it is beneficial to teach learners explicitly and directly both the concept of metacognition and the use of metacognitive processes (Brown, 1978; Collins et al., 1989; Jackson, 1986). When using the direct approach, teachers should explicitly teach strategies and skills. Teachers should explain not only what the strategy is, but also how, when, where, and why the strategy should be employed. Once students become aware of metacognitive processes, they should be able to apply their metacognitive skills through reflection while working on various learning activities. Reflective practice is compatible with the movement toward “continuous learning for continuous improvement” in the workplace (Marsick & Watkins, 1991). As we become more comfortable reflecting on our own thinking, we will also be more aware of the limitations in our knowledge, skills, and thinking abilities. Once we are aware of these deficiencies, we can work to reduce them.
175 INFORMAL LEARNING IS NOT ENOUGH Incorporating these four elements of informal learning into formal instruction will not, by themselves, lead to enhanced conceptual learning and intellectual skill development. The educational power of informal learning environments is enhanced when knowledgeable and caring instructors combine the appropriate learning environment with the modeling, coaching, and scaffolding needed by the students. Instructors need to also incorporate cognitive learning principles into the elements of informal learning. Cognitive research has led to the development of six broad, general instructional principles that enhance conceptual learning and thinking (Johnson & Thomas, 1994). These six principles include helping students organize their knowledge, building on what students already know, facilitating information processing, facilitating “deep thinking,” making thinking processes explicit, and supporting the use and transfer of knowledge and skills. Johnson and Thomas (1994) have also identified many instructional strategies that can be used in formal instruction to address the cognitive principles of learning (see Figure 2). Combining direct instruction using strategies that are designed around the six cognitive principles of learning within an environment provided by the four elements of informal learning will result in robust opportunities for students to gain conceptual understanding and develop their intellectual skills. IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION When we compare the elements of instruction discussed in this chapter with the issues raised in the chapters by McCormick and Jones, we notice considerable congruence. The basic message is that learning will be enhanced when students reflect on and collaborate with others as they solve technological problems that occur in rich contexts. There is also considerable congruence between the elements of instruction and current instructional practice in technology education. Throughout its existence, possibly beginning with ancient forms of apprenticeship, technology education has been activity-based, rich in context, and to a lesser extent, peer-based and encouraging of reflective practice. This should not be surprising because the content of technology education is driven by the needs of the workplace and the instructors maintain a close connection with the “real world.” The curriculum is very skill-oriented, project-based, and taught in rich contextual settings that often have a high degree of correspondence to the workplace. As McCormick points out in his chapter, the “real world” nature of technology presents a significant challenge to learning theorists. These characteristics have not gone unnoticed, as researchers have begun to turn to vocational and technical education to learn more about “nontraditional techniques and methods” (Stasz et al., 1990, p. 2) including Fig. 2. Instructional principles and strategies for enhancing cognitive learning (Johnson & Thomas, 1994, p. 41). Principle 3 Principle 6 Principle 1 Principle 2 Principle 4 Principle 5 Support Encoding and Support the Use and Reduce Load on Limitec Activate Existing Facilitate Deep Enhance Cognitive Representation of New Transfer of Knowledge Working Memory Knowledge Structures Thinking Contra Processes Knowledge and Skills Teach how to create external Ask thought provoking and Establish a purpose for what Encourage learners to reflect Adapt metacognitive Plan activities around real memories. probing questions. Is to be learned. on their actions and beliefs Instruction to the learners situations and contexts. ability levels. Provide external memories Use text or visual cues to help Design activities of Plan activities that facilitate Highlight distinctive features such as notes, outlines, and learners access appropriate increasing complexity and learner interaction (e.g., pair Teach metacognitive of new information. knowledge concept maps diversity. problem solving or strategies directly through cooperative learning techniques such as reciprocal Use advance organizers. Contrast similarities and Model appropriate skills Strategically focus attention strategies). teaching. differences in new and behaviors. through graphical cues such Use analogies and information. as boldface type, underlining Use precise language that metaphors. Involve learners in teaching Provide hints, reminders bright colors, loud sounds. clearly identifies the roles (e.g., peer tutoring or Encourage use of multiple and explanations to help and novelty. Explicitly remind learners of processes to be used. reciprocal teaching) representation forms (e.g learners accomplish tasks what they already know. verbal, iconic, symbolic) they could not otherwise Encourage learners to think Help learners organize their Encourage learners to complete. Teach mnemonic memory aloud while problem solving memory Into chunks through generate questions, enhancement strategies. to make cognitive processes concept mapping, contrast explanations, and Provide less external explicit. sets, mnemonic devices, and summaries. support as skill and pattern recognition. autonomy Increase Design laboratory or computer-based simulations Provide practice that require extensive opportunities to develop cognitive processing. automaticity. Challenge learners understanding through dialectic dialogue Yüklə 47,04 Kb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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