International Journal of Technology and Design Education 7: 161-180, 1997. 1997

The problem of knowledge transfer
A second issue confronting education relates to knowledge transfer. Once we acquire new knowledge and skills, are we able to transfer what we learned in other classes, in our daily lives, and in our work? As described by Jones in his chapter of this book, research suggests that all too often we cannot. Numerous examples show that students who are taught a new strategy fail to apply the strategy when it is appropriate. For example, when children are taught a skill, such as solving a problem mathemati­cally, they often fail to recognize that their new skill can be used to solve a similar problem at a later time (Bereiter, 1984). Other studies show that students who are quite skilled with certain tasks outside of school often have difficulty solving similar problems in school (Lave, 1988; Lave et al., 1984). Knowledge and skills do not transfer easily because students may learn how to perform a strategy, but they do not learn when it is appropriate to use it. This describes the problem of inert knowledge (Whitehead, 1929) - knowledge that is not used in new situations and contexts even though it is relevant. In other words, the knowledge students possess is inert if they have proven that they can use it in one situation (such as in a lab. or on a test) but fail to use it in an appropriate situation at a later time (such as in a restaurant, at work, or while playing). The problem of inert knowl­edge may be due to the failure of schools to help students develop conditionalised knowledge - knowledge about the conditions under which knowledge is applicable (Simon, 1980).
A second reason why knowledge and skills do not transfer easily is because of differences between the learning situation and the situation where the transfer is to occur. These differences have been described as “near transfer” or “far transfer” (Clark & Voogel, 1985; Perkins & Salomon, 1988; Royer, 1986; Salomon, 1988). Near transfer occurs when students apply their knowledge and skills in situations and contexts that are similar to those in which the learning occurred. Because this type of transfer happens because of the similarity between the learning context and the context in which the skill is applied, instruction should provide learning environ­ments that are similar to the situations in which the knowledge and skills

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will be used. In contrast, far transfer occurs when a skill is performed in a context that is very different from the context in which the skill was learned. Far transfer involves the development of generalisable skills that are acquired and used in different contexts (Clark & Voogel, 1985). Far transfer occurs less often and is more difficult than near transfer because you must deliberately analyse the situation in order to recall the rules or concepts needed to apply your knowledge and skill in that particular situation (Salomon, 1988).
Perkins and Salomon (1988) contend that even if students are taught knowledge and skills that are transferable, they are not taught to recog­nize when transfer is appropriate. By using the terms “low road” and “high road” transfer, Perkins and Salomon contend that transfer depends on the depth of learning. Learning to drive a car is a good example of a skill that transfers easily to new situations because of both near transfer and low road transfer. When learning to drive, the skills of starting and stopping a car and driving through town are practised over and over until they become automatic. People usually have little difficulty trying to drive a car that is different from the one they originally learned to drive. The reason this “low road” transfer occurs is because the surface features of the two cars are so similar and the context in which driving occurs has not changed (near transfer) and because they have practised the skill until it is nearly auto­matic (low road transfer). In contrast, “high road” transfer requires conscious attempts to recognize similar features across situations that are very dif­ferent. High road transfer occurs when a military cadet realizes that the rules of “surround and capture” in chess can be applied in tactical planning. In this case, the surface features and overall context between chess and warfare are very different and, in most cases, transfer would be unlikely to occur (far transfer). However, if the learner were taught to look beyond the surface features and recognize the abstract rules that apply in a situation (high road transfer), transfer may occur. High road transfer depends on “delib­erate mindful abstraction of skill or knowledge from one context or application to another” (Perkins & Salomon, 1988, p. 25).
Knowledge and skills also fail to transfer to new situations because what is learned in school is not necessarily what is needed in later life. For example, Lesgold and colleagues (1988) found that expert radiolo­gists use different intellectual skills to analyse x-rays than those taught in medical school. In another study, Scribner (1984) found that dairy workers who assemble delivery orders and take inventory do not use the strategies and formulae they learned through formal mathematics instruction. Rather, they use their knowledge of the physical environment and constraints to invent strategies that are physically and mentally more efficient. Similar studies of reading show that workers employ reading strategies that are different and more effective than those learned in school (Diehl & Mikulecky, 1980; Mikulecky, 1982). Along these same lines, Scribner and Cole (1981) found that the cognitive skills used by literate people who had no formal schooling were very different from the cognitive skills of

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those who became literate through formal schooling. It has even been suggested that many of the strategies used by labourers are similar to the procedures used by children prior to instruction and by unschooled adults who have learned through experience (Balfanz, 1991). Ultimately, the learning transfer problem occurs because formal education empha­sizes the mechanical aspects of knowledge (e.g., rote learning of facts, calculation formulas, rules, and procedures) rather than the activity of thinking.
The issue of enhancing learning transfer through technical education is an important one. Near transfer has been an important priority of tech­nical education. Students in many technical programs have been trained for occupations that involve specific job tasks and specialized types of equipment. Technical programs have attempted to procure and maintain “state of the art” equipment that very closely resembles equipment used in the workplace. However, with the rapid changes that are occurring in the workplace, technical programs cannot keep up with those changes. As a result, technical educators should begin giving more thought to the teaching of far transfer in their curriculum. Technical education curriculum developers must ask themselves what the educational priority should be regarding the transfer of knowledge and skills. If near transfer is desired, specific teaching strategies related to the development of automaticity will be needed. If far transfer is desired, metacognitive control of knowledge and skills must be taught.