Managing Social Identity Running Head: Managing Social Identity

Proposition 3: SIs that are relatively more central to a consumers’ self-concept are more accessible and are therefore more likely to influence consumer judgment.

Influence of the Aspirational Self-Concept on Accessibility. The accessibility of a social identity is also influenced by the identity’s connection to aspirational elements of the self-concept. Every SI is part of one possible self that an individual can actualize (Markus and Ruvulo 1989). Some of these possible selves are aspirational and may differ substantially from whom an individual objectively “is.” Consumers often make choices that help them move closer to an aspirational self, even when this movement is purely hypothetical. For example, many consumers aspire to be thin and can imagine what it would be like to achieve their desired “thin and healthy” self. This desire can provide motivation to diet, exercise, or engage in other healthy activities. It can also encourage patronage of products and services that help cultivate an aspirational self. One prominent example of this is the tendency for consumers to frequent retail outlets whose clothing sizes are shifted downward from the industry average. Although the consumer’s physique is presumably identical at every retail establishment, the consumer is drawn to clothing that claims to be a smaller size. By wearing this clothing, the consumer is able to move their self-conception one step closer to their aspirational “thin” self. A great deal of advertising also appeals to these aspirational self-conceptions by presenting models that symbolize what the consumer wishes to be.

Running in opposition to aspirational selves are avoided selves. Consumers actively try to avoid engaging in activities or choosing products that reinforce a self that they deem undesirable.

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The desire to avoid certain self-conceptions is often apparent when individuals first become parents. Many new parents want to avoid becoming “old,” and this often prompts product selections that distance the new parent from this conception. The choice of a family vehicle is notable demonstration of this phenomenon. Although minivans are specifically designed with the needs of parents in mind, new parents frequently recoil at the thought of driving a minivan due to the negative conceptions about the “parent” self that drives such a vehicle. The desire to avoid this self contributes to the ever-expanding popularity of SUVs since these vehicles are believed to provide some of the benefits of a minivan without the corresponding negative effects on self-construal.

Proposition 4: SIs connected to either an aspirational self-concept or an avoided self-concept are more accessible. Consumers pursue (avoid) activities and choices that reinforce elements of aspirational (avoided) self-concepts.

Determinants of Social Identity Diagnosticity

An accessible SI has the potential to influence consumer judgments, but this potential is only reached when the SI informs the judgment at hand. When the consumer perceives correspondence or congruency between the brand and a SI, evaluative content linked to the SI is more easily transferred to the evaluation of the brand. Brand-identity correspondence is produced by four factors: object relevance, symbolic relevance, goal relevance, and action relevance. In addition to these relevance factors, diagnosticity is also influenced by the degree to which the social identity helps the consumer discriminate between options. Each of these forms of relevance and the general notion of discrimination are now discussed in turn.

Object relevance of a social identity. Judgments are particularly susceptible to the influence of accessible SIs when the object being evaluated is part of the symbolic constellation of products that define the SI (Solomon, 1988). As a case in point, a consumer who perceives herself as a working mother may be more favorable to an automobile that emphasizes safety and practicality. These SI-

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based evaluations are particularly common with brands that come to symbolize particular user

groups or “fit” with a particular SI (cf. Sirgy 1982).

This notion of correspondence between an object and a SI has been argued most strongly in

the functional approach to attitudes which argues that certain objects are linked to particular SIs

(Kleine, Kleine and Kernan 1993; Laverie, Kleine and Kleine 2002; Shavitt, 1989; cf. Solomon,

1983). For example, brands may possess symbolic aspects that connect them to particular SIs (cf.

Sirgy 1982) or become paramorphically representative of a SI (e.g. a MacIntosh user). When the

consumer perceives correspondence or congruency between the brand and a SI, evaluative content

linked to the SI is more easily transferred to the evaluation of the brand. Thus, the object-relevance

of a SI increases the likelihood that the attitude object will be thought of in terms of the SI:

Proposition 5: Accessible SIs are more likely to influence evaluations of objects that are relevant to the SI.

Diagnosticity Based on Symbolic Relevance. Symbolic relevance exists when the expression of a

belief or the possession of an object communicates one’s SI or reinforces an important element of

that SI (Shavitt and Nelson 2000). As an example, an attitude toward some issue (e.g., foreign policy)

may be relevant to a consumer's political SI if the consumer perceives that a particular stance on the

issue reflects certain ideals or values endemic to the political SI (Duck, Hogg and Terry 1999;

Rokeach, 1973). Observers readily make person impression judgments based on knowledge of the

purchase decisions of targets (Baran, Mok, Land and Kang 1989). Hence, objects such as products

can provide a “social stock of knowledge that people use in typifying those they meet” (Shavitt and

Nelson 2000, page 52). Such objects are symbolic (Solomon, 1983) in the sense that they tend to be

displayed publicly and are widely seen as reflecting public affiliation with a particular SI (e.g.,

membership in a particular real or imagined group (Shavitt 1989). Therefore, SIs can be conceived as

uniting around forms of expressive symbolism (e.g., Yuppies, motorcycle gangs, or sports teams).

The self-definitions of group members are derived from symbolic relevance associated with the

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common symbol system to which the group is dedicated (cf. Solomon 1983). Moreover, this general concept of symbolic congruence has been used to explain consumer attraction to brands (Birdwell, 1968; Dolich 1969; Eriksen and Sirgy 1989; Grubb and Stern 1971; Malhotra 1988) and even retail environments (Sirgy, Grewal and Mangleburg 2000). In general, it has been argued that consumer attraction to these entities occurs to the extent that there is a cognitive match between value-expressive attributes of a marketing stimulus and a consumer’s self-concept.

Diagnosticity Based on Goal Relevance. Goal relevance exists when a potential belief or behavior is related to an issue or outcome that is important to the consumer’s accessible SI. These beliefs or behaviors could include the expression of an attitude, specific group-related behaviors, or simply affiliation with a product or brand. For example, a consumer who benefits from affirmative action would encounter greater goal relevance during an affirmative action debate than would an individual who is unaffected by its policies (Kravitz 1995). Although individuals who oppose affirmative action might also believe that affirmative action could affect their group (e.g. affirmative action “steals” opportunities from their group), this belief is less directly related to their group’s overall achievement. However, the perception of relevance could still be momentarily heightened if an individual was concerned about his or her upcoming opportunities on the job market.

Diagnosticity Based on Action Relevance. Products may allow a person to perform some action related to a particular SI. For example, a “baseball player” may require a bat, glove and cleats to perform within that SI (Klein, et. al, 1992). Action relevance is determined by the extent to which a product allows an individual to perform behavioral functions associated with a particular SI. These products and or possessions have been called constellations (Solomon, 1983) because they can behaviorally “enact” a particular SI. Past research suggests that simply having the possessions or displaying the objects is not enough; what is important is how a person perceives other consumer’s reactions to the use of those possessions. This is important in marketing, because the use of the

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products and brands that embody an SI should reinforce the SI. A corollary of this idea is that the

more SI related possessions a consumer has, the more empowered a consumer should feel about his

ability to perform in that SI (Kleine, et. al 1993; Laverie et. al 2002) and the more confident the

consumer will be that he holds appropriate opinions (Jones and Gerard 1967).

Diagnosticity Based on Discrimination Ability. Even if a SI is salient, self-important and object

relevant, it might not be the basis by which a consumer forms an attitude. The term

“discriminability” refers to the extent to which the evaluative content of the social identity has

sufficient clarity and specificity to inform the consumer’s evaluation of the object or brand and to

guide a behavioral response. As a case in point, when an “urban youth” evaluates shoe brands, he

or she may find several brands that have co-opted young, urban imagery in their advertising and

are thus not differentiable on this identity dimension. In this situation, the absence of a clear

identity-related norm provides her with an inadequate basis for choice (Kallgren, Reno and

Cialdini 2000) and her SI therefore fails to discriminate between the options available.

Proposition 6: If a SI is discriminating as a basis for judgment, there is an increased likelihood that the evaluative content linked to that SI will impact the formation of a consumer judgment.

Summary of the key factors. A consumer may think about herself in terms of various SIs (see

Figure A-1) that can connect her to a brand, product or behavior. She might then 1) access the

evaluative content of a particular SI, 2) consider its relevance to an object brand or behavior to be

evaluated and 3) form a response. This process is affected by several key accessibility and

diagnosticity factors: SI salience (is the consumer momentarily thinking about herself along the SI

dimension), SI self-importance (does the consumer strongly identify with the SI), relevance of the SI

to the object of evaluation (is the SI functionally linked to the object), and the discrimination value

of the SI in the domain (does the SI provides a basis for response). In the next section, we discuss

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the influence of various marketing contexts and communication strategies on the accessibility and diagnosticity of an SI.

TRANSLATING THE FRAMEWORK INTO A STRATEGIC PLAN

Brands and products are often specifically created or positioned to embody a particular SI-oriented lifestyle. However, there has been little empirical research that examines the methods through which firms successfully build identity-relevant brands, and the circumstances under which such a marketing strategy is likely to be successful. Yet, these issues hold important theoretical implications for academic researchers, as well as practical relevance for marketing managers. We propose that an effective use of SI in a firm’s marketing strategy must simultaneously consider both conditions of the current framework. The goals of the remainder of this article is to operationalize the framework’s two conditions and to describe the process of forming effective product-SI connections. These goals are organized around a three-part strategic plan: 1) Pre-Positioning Analysis 2) Congruency Analysis 3) Reinforcement and Post-Positioning Analysis (see Figure A-4).

Insert Figure A-4 about here


Pre-Positioning Analysis

Characteristics and Image Confirmation: The purpose of the pre-positioning analysis is to identify relevant social identities that represent profitable segments, and to assess whether a brand’s “personality” (Aaker, 1997) could fit one of these segments. Every consumer’s self-concept is comprised of identities that are associated with a subset of traits, characteristics and other associations that thereby define the SI. To begin the pre-positioning analysis, one must assess what characteristics and traits a prototypical member of the identity group would possess (see Figure A-1 for a useful starting point in this regard). For example, the SI “Young Urban Professional” may be linked to the following characteristics: thrill seeking, technologically savvy, intelligent, hard working,

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successful, ambitious, etc. Moving beyond interpersonal characteristics, a SI may also be linked to specific product classes and brands (e.g., a “Young Urban Professional” may be visualized holding a black berry in one hand and a Starbuck’s coffee in the other). By identifying these characteristics and products, brand managers can identify the SIs that might be relevant to a given brand, or if a new brand could be profitably introduced to this SI. Several target SIs should be identified during this pre-positioning phase – in much the same way that the “funnel” process in new product development starts with the generation of as many ideas as possible.

Validation of Identity Schema After identifying relevant social identities during pre-positioning, marketers should evaluate whether the identities will reinforce key elements of the brand’s positioning. To assess the potential value of a social identity to a particular brand, both qualitative and quantitative research should be conducted. On the exploratory end of the spectrum, focus groups can be conducted to determine how the social identity is perceived among both target and non-target consumers. A particularly useful strategy to this end is to assemble focus groups that are homogeneous across the selected identity dimension. By pre-selecting members of a given identity group, the focus group can serve as a proxy for the larger segment, thus helping to reveal elements of the shared culture to the researcher. Such a homogeneous sample is particularly useful when the consumption experience is visible and social (Wooten and Reed, 1999). When consumption occurs privately, more personal research methodologies such as depth interviews are more appropriate.

Once some basic insights about a social identity have been gleaned from exploratory contact with consumers, marketers can then assess how well a given brand meshes with the social identity. When properly developed, a brand can become a badge for specific identity groups, or may even become the foundation of its own identity group. This process begins with an analysis of the brand’s personality (Aaker, 1997; Aaker, et. al 200X) via survey and projective techniques. For example, potential consumers may be asked to describe the prototypical consumer of a given brand, product

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category, or other usage variable. Participants might also be asked to imagine what products a member of a social identity group would use, where they would use them, and with whom. In this way, one can identify the key traits associated with the brand (e.g., the typical “Cadillac driver.”).

The results of the projective questions help reveal perceptions of both one’s own brand and relevant competitors (e.g. Starbucks customer vs. the typical Wawa customer). For example, projective research on Army enlistment found that the “be all you can be campaign” was highly memorable, but that it neither communicated a specific identity for Army volunteers nor did it distinguish the Army from other branches of the military. In response, The Army of One® campaign was developed as an attempt to highlight the individual autonomy of its soldiers while communicating the importance of the individual as one link in the chain of the group (http://goarmy.com/). This re-designed campaign also created a much clearer image of a soldier-identification group.

Self-Importance Analysis Consistent with the propositions in our conceptual framework, it is also useful to understand the deeper associations that consumers have with an SI. To this end, there are several “strength of identification” measures that assess the self-importance of a particular SI. For example, Luhtanen and Crocker (1992) have developed a psychometric measure of “collective group self-esteem” and Phinney (1992) has developed a more general measure of identity importance (in this case written for ethnicity). These measures can help one ascertain how self-important a target SI is to prospective consumers. Identity self-importance can also be assessed using implicit measurement techniques such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT) (Greenwald, McGhee and Schwarz 1998). The IAT uses a series of computer-based paired categorization tasks to reveal how strongly individuals associate concepts (in this case identity groups) with a given attribute dimension. This allows researchers to assess a vast array of associations in memory including stereotypes ties to particular identity groups, prevailing associations with target brands, and the

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extent to which specific identity groups or brands are connected to the consumer’s self-concept (Greenwald et. al. 2002; Greenwald and Farnham 2000). Since this measure of association is built from the speed with which consumers can categorize concepts, it is highly resistant to many of the presentation biases found in explicit measures. This makes the IAT particularly useful for studying consumer’s reactions to identity groups that may engender negative or socially inappropriate associations. For example, although most individuals outwardly claim to not possess stereotypes about specific ethnic or racial groups, research using the IAT often reveals that these associations still exist in memory.

Assessing the self-importance of a consumer’s social identity is predictive of how they will respond to products that leverage a strongly held identity, as well as to products that leverage identities not possessed by the consumer. In situations where a SI is made accessible to consumers, the SI may prompt either approach (a positive reaction) or avoidance (a negative reaction). When viewing communications utilizing a specific SI, individuals that possess that SI may react with avoidance to the extent that they want to avoid standing out or fear that embracing the SI might hamper assimilation. In addition, individuals who do not possess the SI used in the communication may react with avoidance to the extent that they label the communication as “not for me” (Aaker, Brumbaugh, and Grier 1999; Forehand and Deshpande 2001). Indeed, research on persuasion effects suggests that any variable that leads individuals to make similarity judgments between themselves and an advertisement source (e.g., cultural orientation, Aaker and Williams 1998; social class, Williams and Qualls 1989, ethnicity, Wooten, 1995) should influence the degree to which both target and non-target market effects occur.

Since most products may serve more than just a single demographic or lifestyle group, marketers should evaluate whether there is any potential for a negative reaction from non-target members (Aaker, Brumbaugh, and Grier 2000; Forehand, Deshpande, and Reed 2002). For example,

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although Trekkies strongly associate Star Trek with their self-concept, most nonetheless understand that the Trekkie identity is valued in some instances and not others. Consequently, a Trekkie may immerse him or herself in the Star Trek culture at a convention, but hide this identity in the workplace. This highlights the importance of knowing not only whether an individual possesses a certain identity, but also whether that identity is favorably viewed in the social context.

Perceptual Identity Maps: A final step in a prepositioning analysis of social identity is the development of a perceptual identity map that quantifies initial exploratory analyses. In much the same way that a perceptual map is generated from perceived functional benefits (e.g., price vs. quality) of various products, a perceptual identity map is generated from the traits and associations of various social identities. This perceptual map is critical since individuals belong to multiple identities and their overall self-concept is therefore an amalgam of SIs (see figure A-1). This complexity creates the potential for conflicting prescriptions from one’s various SIs that occur when brands become linked to opposing SIs. For example, a white teenager from the suburbs may generally associate himself with mainstream American culture yet be fanatically devoted to hip-hop music. These different SIs might impose inconsistent demands upon that person (Ashforth and Mael 1989; Kriesberg 1949) or conflict with the individual’s personal identity (Cheeks and Briggs 1982; Leary, Wheeler and Jenkins 1986). As a result, the teen’s clothing preferences may be torn between Abercrombie and Fitch and Phat Farm. Hence, a company should closely monitor how consumers resolve these conflicts and how resolution influences brand attitudes and behaviors.

Congruency Analysis

Assess the link between the brand and the consumer social identity. Once a marketer has assessed the prevailing associations consumers have with an identity, a congruency analysis should be conducted to assess the value of potential brand-identity links (see Figure A-4). There are two situations in which a congruency analysis is particularly relevant: 1) when establishing a link between a new brand

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and an SI, and 2) when repositioning an already existing brand. Where pre-positioning analysis analyzes which social identities are generally relevant to a category, a congruency analysis assesses the degree of fit between specific brands and SIs. In short, high fit facilitates the transfer of associations, images, and characteristics from the social identity to the brand and vice versa. The exact methodologies used in a congruency analysis are dependent on the results of the pre-positioning analysis. For example, when pre-positioning analyses leverage quantitative approaches, a congruency analysis can assess direct correlations between the SIs and various offerings.

Reinforcement and Monitoring

In general, brands become associated with an SI through consistent promotion of the brand with SI imagery and through actual use of the brand by visible members of SI. Moving beyond these observational effects, the most powerful way of connecting a brand to an SI is through personal use or evaluation of the brand. These interactions increase consumer affiliation with the brand and can reinforce the consumer’s self-association with both the brand and the SI. In a recent demonstration of this phenomenon, college-age consumers evaluated vitamin advertisements that were either targeted to children, college students, or senior citizens (Forehand, Perkins and Reed, 2004). Outside of user imagery, the ad content was identical in all three versions. As one might expect, college-age consumers responded less favorably to the vitamin brand when the advertisement featured either children or seniors. More interestingly, viewing an ad targeting children or seniors also influenced the degree to which the consumers associated themselves with their own age-identity group. Specifically, college students who viewed ads featuring either children or seniors spent more time evaluating age appropriateness and this reinforced their pre-existing association with youth. Evaluating a brand on an SI dimension reinforced the consumer’s dominant self-association with the SI. We briefly discuss several identifiable marketing strategies which if used in concert, may serve to reinforce the link between the brand and the chosen SI.

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Identity Cues. Exposure to environmental cues in the market place can activate SI related concepts in memory and thereby increase the likelihood that consumers will use their SI in the evaluation of marketing stimuli (cf. Forehand and Deshpandé 2001; Forehand, Deshpandé, and Reed II 2002; Hong et al. 2000; Wyer and Srull 1986). For example, Mitchell, Banaji and Nosek (1998) found that attitudes toward Michael Jordan were positive (negative) when the category of athlete (African American) had been made salient to the evaluator. Similarly, LeBoeuf and colleagues found that the car and food preferences of Chinese-Americans were more stereotypically American when an American as opposed to Chinese SI was made salient through the content and language of self-elicitation tasks (LeBouef and Shafir, 2003; study two).

The linking of a brand to a SI through market cues serves many benefits. First and foremost, it can improve the attitude of identity members toward the brand. Since the brand can become a reflection of the group itself, the association inclines identity members toward positive evaluation and can thereby influence purchase intentions. Even absent this positive generalization, identity can still influence choice if consumers use the SI as a choice heuristic. For example, SIs based on one’s country of origin are often powerful heuristic inputs to choice.

The association of a brand with an identity cue can also increase the likelihood that the brand will be included in a consideration set. The subset of products that come under consideration is often influenced by which products happen to come to mind at the moment of product choice. By associating itself with an identity, a brand can effectively increase its likelihood of consideration set inclusion in two ways. First, to the extent that the product category is consumed in social situations with other members of the identity group, a brand that is tied to the identity is more likely to be activated than one that is not. Second, the association of a brand with a consumer’s SI is effectively an association between the brand and the consumer’s self concept. Since research has repeatedly shown that consumers have better recall of concepts that are associated with the self-

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concept (Markus 1977, Markus and Sentis 1982; Symons and Johnson 1997), the linking of a brand to an identity group can dramatically increase the extent to which the brand is top of mind. Indeed, media tip their hand to their desired audience through many subtle (and not so subtle) cues in their content. Identity cues should influence all consumers to some degree, but it is likely that consumers with social identity-driven self-concepts will be much more sensitive to these cues.

Taken together, these findings suggest that carefully placed primes in the marketplace can differentially activate specific social categories and thereby alter which SI a consumer brings to bear in an evaluation. Researchers who have theorized about the brand-building process have often argued that brands develop a host of associations over time and that these associations include beliefs about the typical user, usage occasion, and other consumer-related information (Keller, 2003). In general, these brand-building strategies suggest that brands should repeatedly pair themselves with visual and verbal images of their desired user to build these associations over time.

Spokespersons: Our framework suggests that SI salience leads to more positive evaluations of same- identity actors and spokespeople by highlighting the similarity between the consumer and the spokesperson. In turn, this heightened similarity increases the likelihood that the consumer will classify the spokesperson as a member of his or her “in-group” (a classification of similar others). Once same-identity actors are classified into the consumer’s in-group, a host of positive biases toward the actors should follow (c.f. Chatman & von Hippel, 2001). For example, prior research has found that, compared to out-group members, in-group members are perceived to be more similar to the evaluator (Taylor et al. 1978) as well as more interesting and varied (Linville, Fischer & Salovey, 1989). Similar others also are usually more persuasive (Berscheid, 1966) and liked more than dissimilar others (Neimeyer & Mitchell, 1988). Evidence that identity primes should magnify these positive effects is indirectly provided by research demonstrating that evaluation of in-group members improves when attention is focused on the evaluator’s group memberships (Abrams,

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1985). Moreover, research on racial similarity (Whittler 1989), role congruence (Meyers-Levy 1989) labeling (Tepper 1994), intensity of ethnic identification (Williams and Qualls, 1989), shared cultural knowledge (Brumbaugh 1997), and ethnic salience (Deshpande and Stayman 1994) all evoke positive effects and reactions among the respective target markets. In general, these targeting strategies work by influencing consumers’ perceptions of congruency between characteristics of the marketing mix element (e.g., source pictured, language used, lifestyle represented) and characteristics of themselves (e.g., reality or desire of having the represented lifestyle) (Whittler 1989; Whittler and DiMeo, 1991).

Retail Environment. Retail environments offer a unique opportunity to implement experiential marketing that combines all sensorial elements (sight, hearing, touch, taste and even smell) to help heighten the accessibility of a particular SI and reinforce it. Consumers may develop relationships with these brick and mortar environments both to shape their expressed SI and also to bolster the esteem via the “reflective glory” that these places can provide (Cialdini, et. al). In its mildest form, consumer identification with retail establishments fosters loyalty; in its most extreme, evangelism. These fanatical identifiers latch on to membership symbols including logos, badges, bumper stickers (Oliver, 1999), special uniforms (Trekkies), or even extensive travel (Dead heads).

Group Events, Online Websites and Chatrooms: A great deal of research suggests that the self-concept is shaped through interaction with groups (Allport 1955; Baumeister 1987; Cooley 1902; Mead 1934; Rosenberg, 1979; Schlenker 1985; Shweder and LeVine 1984; Tajfel 1972 1981). In addition to strengthening the SI components of the self-concept, interaction with groups is also likely to influence the goals individuals pursue and deem important. Individuals learn what it means to hold group memberships through social interaction with other group members and by the roles they adopt within those groups (see figure A-1). These interactions need not be personal--online chat rooms give identity members feedback on appropriate identity-based beliefs and thereby reinforce an individual’s tie to the SI without requiring close geographic proximity.

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To develop a link between a consumer’s SI and the brand identity, firms should create corporate programs, local clubs, and events that allow the consumer to express affiliation with the brand. For example, Harley-Davidson encourages symbolic relevance among its buyers by promoting local H.O.G. (Harley Owners Group) chapters. Membership in such patronage groups serves as a feedback mechanism that enhances the importance of the SI. Such patronage groups are not limited to the marketing lifestyle brands—even simple utilitarian products can develop resonance with patronage groups. For example, Garnier Fructis, a highly successful shampoo offering, began with a particular consumer image in mind and constructed a marketing campaign emphasizing values that resonated with a distinct consumer identity. The product launch also strived to create brand communities and other peripheral marketing symbols (e.g., “Fru-crew” t-shirts and other clothing) that helped reinforce the customer identity and values. What matters is not the level of product or decision involvement but that the marketer can link their brand to images, values, or lifestyles that appeal to one or more of their customers’ multiple identities.

Advertising communications: Advertising provides a unique opportunity to convey consistent images and messages connected to a targeted SI. Consumers are particularly receptive to these images to the extent that they believe in their own self-efficacy and are therefore able to assimilate the directives of a newly-presented SI. Self-efficacy is defined as “an individual’s beliefs about his or her capabilities to produce levels of performance that exercise influence over events” (Gollwitzer 1999). Current theory suggests that self-efficacy exerts its effect on behavior through the formation of behavioral intentions (goal setting) and the translation of these intentions into actual behavior. As a result, individuals with high degrees of self-efficacy are more likely to incorporate the perceived goals of a SI into their consumption decisions. Indeed, the formation of implementation intentions, often defined more broadly as how, when and where a behavior will be initiated, is strongly correlated with consumer behaviors (Sheeran and Orbell 2000, Sheeran and Orbell 1999,

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Verplanken and Faes 1999). Through advertising, marketers can reinforce self-efficacy in connection with an SI and model appropriate SI-oriented behaviors. In addition, marketers may be able to increase self-efficacy by providing consumers with mastery experiences that focus consumers on both real-life success and “virtual” success (e.g. mentally “seeing” a SI oriented behavior being accomplished). This is a domain rich with potential avenues of study.

Advertising can also help individuals construct norms of behavior should they wish to embrace a particular SI. Although these goal-based norms are sometimes enforced by the formal sanction of rewards and punishments, norms are often followed merely because consumers who possess a particular SI internalize these proscriptions for behavior as useful and appropriate guides for action (cf. Festinger 1954). Moreover, when the salience of an SI is heightened, the alignment of judgments with group membership norms increases, particularly when the membership group possesses a clear position on the issue (Cohen and Reed 2001). Group members may also construct guidelines pertinent to specific behaviors via group-anchored attitudes. For example, a group of female business executives may determine that they should stand strong against affirmative action because it undermines their credibility in the workplace. In this way, their SI as women in business may become linked to negative evaluative information regarding this particular attitude object.

Monitor Effectiveness of Marketing Mix Elements: Of course, as with any marketing strategy, it is very important to monitor the extent to which identity appeals are effective over time and to assess potential anti-SI reactions. For example, Viagra® advertising was initially characterized by a positioning based on the effectiveness of the product and persuasive communications aimed at communicating benefits (and overcoming reluctance to seek medical assistance). The later entry of Cialis® and Levitra® heightened competitive pressures, with both brands claiming superior product benefits but also emphasizing the importance of the product for personal relationships. The latter reflects an identity appeal (i.e., being an intimate, thoughtful and loving romantic partner) and has

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been a powerful basis for differentiating the later entrants and for building attitudes that reflect a deeper sense of self. More recently, Viagra® has responded by emphasizing how the product can restore the vibrancy of one’s lost youth identity (e.g., “get back to the mischief”).

Such symbolic relevance must be strategically monitored and managed in an effective marketing effort. Too often, brands position themselves close to a particular SI, and that SI may fall out of favor, become antiquated or a competitor might make use of a “counter-identity” that undermines the symbolic aspects of a salient SI. A good example of this is Coca-cola (Foust, 2004). Coca-cola has been touted for being one of the most successful iconic brands of the twentieth century. Originally built around “Norman Rockwell” type “Americana” imagery, the soft drink giant has been criticized for not being able to keep step with competitors like Pepsi. More specifically, Coke’s marketing elements have become “too conservative…with ads that don’t resonate with the teenagers and young adults that make up its most important audience” (Foust, 2004 page 79). Contrast this with Pepsi, whose “new generation” campaign and imagery has been able to link the Pepsi brand to a much hipper, and cooler set of identity based associations.

Monitoring the social acceptability of a SI is particularly important given the difficulty of removing associations from a brand. The difficulty of removing these associations is epitomized by BMW’s inability to distance itself from the “yuppie” associations it helped develop in the 1980’s. Starting in the early 1990’s, BMW eliminated excessive yuppie imagery from its advertising and began promoting BMW solely around performance and the “Ultimate Driving Machine.” Over a decade later, “yuppie” is still one of the dominant associations consumers have with BMW, despite BMW’s attempts to shift away from that SI. BMW’s efforts are also undercut by competing automakers who try to reinforce links between BMW and yuppies in their advertising. In a notable example of this, one advertisement featured an Audi driver and a BMW driver sitting in their cars in parallel driveways. As the Audi driver adjusted his controls and pulled onto the road, the BMW

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driver adjusted his mirror and preened. The tagline that followed was “What kind of driver do you want to be?”