c. “Hæc
autem diversificatio hominum in diversis officiis contingit
primo ex divina providentia, quæ ita hominum status distribuit
. . . secundo etiam ex causis naturalibus, ex quibus contingit,
quod in diversis hominibus sunt diversæ inclinationes ad
diversa officia . . .”
Quite similar is Pascal’s view when he says that it is chance
notes
163
which determines the choice of a calling. See on Pascal, A.
Koester, Die Ethik Pascals (1907). Of the organic systems of
religious ethics, only the most complete of them, the Indian, is
different in this respect. The difference between the Thomistic
and the Protestant ideas of the calling is so evident that we may
dismiss it for the present with the above quotation. This is true
even as between the Thomistic and the later Lutheran ethics,
which are very similar in many other respects, especially in their
emphasis on Providence. We shall return later to a discussion
of the Catholic view-point. On Thomas Aquinas, see Mauren-
brecher, Thomas von Aquino’s Stellung zum Wirtschaftsleben
seiner Zeit, 1888. Otherwise, where Luther agrees with Thomas
in details, he has probably been influenced rather by the general
doctrines of Scholasticism than by Thomas in particular. For,
according to Denifle’s investigations, he seems really not to
have known Thomas very well. See Denifle, Luther und Luther-
tum (1903), p. 501, and on it, Koehler, Ein Wort zu Denifles
Luther (1904), p. 25.
6 In Von der Freiheit eines Cristenmenschen, (1) the double nature
of man is used for the justification of worldly duties in the sense
of the lex naturæ (here the natural order of the world). From
that it follows (Erlangen edition, 27, p. 188) that man is inevit-
ably bound to his body and to the social community. (2) In this
situation he will (p. 196: this is a second justification), if he is a
believing Christian, decide to repay God’s act of grace, which
was done for pure love, by love of his neighbour. With this very
loose connection between faith and love is combined (3) (p.
190) the old ascetic justification of labour as a means of secur-
ing to the inner man mastery over the body. (4) Labour is
hence, as the reasoning is continued with another appearance
of the idea of lex naturæ in another sense (here, natural moral-
ity), an original instinct given by God to Adam (before the fall),
which he has obeyed “solely to please God”. Finally (5) (pp. 161
and 199), there appears, in connection with Matt. vii. 18 f., the
idea that good work in one’s ordinary calling is and must be the
result of the renewal of life, caused by faith, without, however,
developing the most important Calvinistic idea of proof. The
notes
164
powerful emotion which dominates the work explains the pres-
ence of such contradictory ideas.
7 “It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or
the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to
their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity,
but to their self-love; and never talk to them of our own neces-
sities, but of their advantages” ( Wealth of Nations, Book I,
chap. ii).
8 “Omnia enim per te operabitur (Deus), mulgebit per te vaccam
et servilissima quæque opera faciet, ac maxima pariter et min-
ima ipsi grata erunt” ( Exigesis of Genesis, Opera lat. exeget., ed.,
Elsperger, VII, p. 213). The idea is found before Luther in Tauler,
who holds the spiritual and the worldly Ruf to be in principle of
equal value. The difference from the Thomistic view is common
to the German mystics and Luther. It may be said that Thomas,
principally to retain the moral value of contemplation, but also
from the view-point of the mendicant friar, is forced to interpret
Paul’s doctrine that “if a man will not work he shall not eat” in
the sense that labour, which is of course necessary lege naturæ,
is imposed upon the human race as a whole, but not on all
individuals. The gradation in the value of forms of labour, from
the opera servilia of the peasants upwards, is connected with the
specific character of the mendicant friars, who were for material
reasons bound to the town as a place of domicile. It was equally
foreign to the German mystics and to Luther, the peasant’s
son; both of them, while valuing all occupations equally, looked
upon their order of rank as willed by God. For the relevant
passages in Thomas see Maurenbrecher, op. cit., pp. 65 ff.
9 It is astonishing that some investigators can maintain that
such a change could have been without effect upon the actions
of men. I confess my inability to understand such a view.
10 “Vanity is so firmly imbedded in the human heart that a camp-
follower, a kitchen-helper, or a porter, boast and seek admir-
ers. . . .” (Faugeres edition, I, p. 208. Compare Koester, op. cit.,
pp. 17, 136 ff.). On the attitude of Port Royal and the Jansenists
to the calling, to which we shall return, see now the excellent
study of Dr. Paul Honigsheim, Die Staats- und Soziallehren der
notes
165
französischen Jansenisten im 17 ten Jahrhundert (Heidelberg His-
torical Dissertation, 1914. It is a separately printed part of a
more comprehensive work on the Vorgeschichte der
französischen Aufklärung. Compare especially pp. 138 ff.).
11 Apropos of the Fuggers, he thinks that it “cannot be right and
godly for such a great and regal fortune to be piled up in the
lifetime of one man”. That is evidently the peasant’s mistrust of
capital. Similarly ( Grosser Sermon vom Wucher, Erlangen edition,
XX, p. 109) investment in securities he considers ethically
undesirable, because it is “ein neues behendes erfunden
Ding”—i.e. because it is to him economically incomprehensible;
somewhat like margin trading to the modern clergyman.
12 The difference is well worked out by H. Levy (in his study, Die
Grundlagen des ökonomischen Liberalismus in der Geschichte
der englischen Volkswirtschaft, Jena, 1912). Compare also, for
instance, the petition of the Levellers in Cromwell’s army of
1653 against monopolies and companies, given in Gardiner,
Commonwealth, II, p. 179. Laud’s regime, on the other hand,
worked for a Christian, social, economic organization under the
joint leadership of Crown and Church, from which the King
hoped for political and fiscal-monopolistic advantages. It was
against just this that the Puritans were struggling.
13 What I understand by this may be shown by the example of the
proclamation addressed by Cromwell to the Irish in 1650, with
which he opened his war against them and which formed his
reply to the manifestos of the Irish (Catholic) clergy of Clon-
macnoise of December 4 and 13, 1649. The most important
sentences follow: “Englishmen had good inheritances (namely
in Ireland) which many of them purchased with their money . . .
they had good leases from Irishmen for long time to come,
great stocks thereupon, houses and plantations erected at their
cost and charge. . . . You broke the union . . . at a time when
Ireland was in perfect peace and when, through the example of
English industry, through commerce and traffic, that which was
in the nation’s hands was better to them than if all Ireland had
been in their possession. . . . Is God, will God be with you? I am
confident He will not.”
notes
166
This proclamation, which is suggestive of articles in the
English Press at the time of the Boer War, is not characteristic,
because the capitalistic interests of Englishmen are held to be
the justification of the war. That argument could, of course,
have just as well been made use of, for instance, in a quarrel
between Venice and Genoa over their respective spheres of
influence in the Orient (which, in spite of my pointing it
out here, Brentano, op. cit., p. 142, strangely enough holds
against me). On the contrary, what is interesting in the docu-
ment is that Cromwell, with the deepest personal conviction, as
everyone who knows his character will agree, bases the moral
justification of the subjection of the Irish, in calling God to
witness, on the fact that English capital has taught the Irish to
work. (The proclamation is in Carlyle, and is also reprinted
and analysed in Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth, I, pp.
163 f.)
14 This is not the place to follow the subject farther. Compare the
authors cited in Note 16 below.
15 Compare the remarks in Jülicher’s fine book, Die Gleichnisreden
Jesu, II, pp. 108, 636 f.
16 With what follows, compare above all the discussion in Eger,
op. cit. Also Schneckenburger’s fine work, which is even to-day
not yet out of date ( Vergleichende Darstellung der lutherischen
und reformierten Lehrbegriffe, Grüder, Stuttgart, 1855).
Luthardt’s Ethik Luthers, p. 84 of the first edition, the only one
to which I have had access, gives no real picture of the devel-
opment. Further compare Seeberg, Dogmengeschichte, II, pp.
262 ff. The article on Beruf in the Realenzyklopädie für protestan-
tische Theologie und Kirche is valueless. Instead of a scientific
analysis of the conception and its origin, it contains all sorts of
rather sentimental observations on all possible subjects, such
as the position of women, etc. Of the economic literature on
Luther, I refer here only to Schmoller’s studies (“Geschichte der
Nationalökonomischen Ansichten in Deutschland während der
Reformationszeit”, Zeitschrift f. Staatswiss., XVI, 1860); Wiske-
mann’s prize essay (1861); and the study of Frank G. Ward
(“Darstellung und Würdigung von Luthers Ansichten vom
notes
167
Staat und seinen wirtschaftlichen Aufgaben”, Conrads Abhand-
lungen, XXI, Jena, 1898). The literature on Luther in com-
memoration of the anniversary of the Reformation, part of
which is excellent, has, so far as I can see, made no definite
contribution to this particular problem. On the social ethics of
Luther (and the Lutherans) compare, of course, the relevant
parts of Troeltsch’s Soziallehren.
17 Analysis of the Seventh Chapter of the First Epistle to the Corinthi-
ans, 1523, Erlangen edition, LI, p. 1. Here Luther still interprets
the idea of the freedom of every calling before God in the sense
of this passage, so as to emphasize (1) that certain human
institutions should be repudiated (monastic vows, the prohib-
ition of mixed marriages, etc.), (2) that the fulfillment of trad-
itional worldly duties to one’s neighbour (in itself indifferent
before God) is turned into a commandment of brotherly love.
In fact this characteristic reasoning (for instance pp. 55, 56)
fundamentally concerns the question of the dualism of the lex
naturæ in its relations with divine justice.
18 Compare the passage from Von Kaufhandlung und Wucher,
which Sombart rightly uses as a motto for his treatment of the
handicraft spirit (
= traditionalism): “Darum musst du dir
fürsetzen, nichts denn deine ziemliche Nahrung zu suchen in
solchem Handel, danach Kost, Mühe, Arbeit und Gefahr rech-
nen und überschlagen und also dann die Ware selbst setzen,
steigern oder niedern, dass du solcher Arbeit und Mühe Lohn
davon hasst.” The principle is formulated in a thoroughly
Thomistic spirit.
19 As early as the letter to H. von Sternberg of 1530, in which he
dedicates the Exigesis of the 117th Psalm to him, the estate of
the lower nobility appears to him, in spite of its moral degrad-
ation, as ordained of God (Erlangen edition, XL, pp. 282 ff.).
The decisive influence of the Münzer disturbances in develop-
ing this view-point can clearly be seen in the letter (p. 282).
Compare also Eger, op. cit., p. 150.
20 Also in the analysis of the 111th Psalm, verses 5 and 6 (Erlangen
edition, XL, pp. 215–16), written in 1530, the starting-point is the
polemics against withdrawal from the world into monasteries.
notes
168
But in this case the lex naturæ (as distinct from positive law
made by the Emperor and the Jurists) is directly identical with
divine justice. It is God’s ordinance, and includes especially
the division of the people into classes (p. 215). The equal
value of the classes is emphasized, but only in the sight of
God.
21 As taught especially in the works Von Konzilien und Kirchen
(1539) and Kurzer Bekenntnis vom heiligen Sakrament (1545).
22 How far in the background of Luther’s thought was the most
important idea of proof of the Christian in his calling and his
worldly conduct, which dominated Calvinism, is shown by this
passage from Von Konzilien und Kirchen (1539, Erlangen edition,
XXV, p. 376): “Besides these seven principal signs there are
more superficial ones by which the holy Christian Church can
be known. If we are not unchaste nor drunkards, proud, inso-
lent, nor extravagant, but chaste, modest, and temperate.”
According to Luther these signs are not so infallible as the
others (purity of doctrine, prayer, etc.). “Because certain of the
heathen have borne themselves so and sometimes even
appeared holier than Christians.” Calvin’s personal position
was, as we shall see, not very different, but that was not true of
Puritanism. In any case, for Luther the Christian serves God
only in vocatione, not per vocationem (Eger, pp. 117 ff.). Of the
idea of proof, on the other hand (more, however, in its Pietistic
than its Calvinistic form), there are at least isolated suggestions
in the German mystics (see for instance in Seeberg, Dogmenge-
schichte, p. 195, the passage from Suso, as well as those from
Tauler quoted above), even though it was understood only in a
psychological sense.
23 His final position is well expressed in some parts of the exe-
gesis of Genesis (in the op. lat. exeget. edited by Elsperger).
Vol. IV, p. 109: “Neque hæc fuit levis tentatio, intentum esse
suæ vocationi et de aliis non esse curiosum. . . . Paucissimi
sunt, qui sua sorte vivant contenti . . . (p. 111). Nostrum autem
est, ut vocanti Deo pareamus . . . (p. 112). Regula igitur hæc
servanda est, ut unusquisque maneat in sua vocatione et
suo dono contentus vivat, de aliis autem non sit curiosus.” In
notes
169
effect that is thoroughly in accordance with Thomas Aqui-
nas’s formulation of traditionalism (Secunda secundæ, Quest.
118, Art. 1): “Unde necese eat, quod bonum hominis circa ea
consistat in quadam mensura, dum scilicet homo . . . quærit
habere exteriores divitas, prout sunt necessariæ ad vitam ejus
secundum suam conditionem. Et ideo in excessu hujus men-
suræ consistit peccatum, dum scilicet aliquis supra debitum
modum vult eas vel acquirere vel retinere, quod pertinet ad
avaritiam.” The sinfulness of the pursuit of acquisition
beyond the point set by the needs of one’s station in life is
based by Thomas on the lex naturæ as revealed by the pur-
pose (ratio) of external goods; by Luther, on the other hand,
on God’s will. On the relation of faith and the calling in
Luther see also Vol. VII, p. 225: “ . . . quando es fidelis, tum
placent Deo etiam physica, carnalia, animalia, officia, sive
edas, sive bibas, sive vigiles, sive dormias, quæ mere corpo-
ralia et animalia sunt. Tanta res est fides. . . . Verum est qui-
dem, placere Deo etiam in impiis sedulitatem et industriam
in officio [This activity in practical life is a virtue lege naturæ]
sed obstat incredulitas et vana gloria, ne possint opera sua
referre ad gloriam Dei [reminiscent of Calvinistic ways of
speaking). . . . Merentur igitur etiam impiorum bona opera in
hac quidem vita præmia sua [as distinct from Augustine’s
‘vitia specie virtutum palliata’] sed non numerantur, non
colliguntur in altero.”
24 In the Kirchenpostille it runs (Erlangen edition, X, pp. 233, 235–
6): “Everyone is called to some calling.” He should wait for this
call (on p. 236 it even becomes command) and serve God in it.
God takes pleasure not in man’s achievements but in his
obedience in this respect.
25 This explains why, in contrast to what has been said above
about the effects of Pietism on women workers, modern
business men sometimes maintain that strict Lutheran
domestic workers to-day often, for instance in Westphalia,
think very largely in traditional terms. Even without going
over to the factory system, and in spite of the temptation of
higher earnings, they resist changes in methods of work, and
notes
170
in explanation maintain that in the next world such trifles
won’t matter anyway. It is evident that the mere fact of Church
membership and belief is not in itself of essential significance
for conduct as a whole. It has been much more concrete
religious values and ideals which have influenced the devel-
opment of capitalism in its early stages and, to a lesser extent,
still do.
26 Compare Tauler, Basle edition, Bl., pp. 161 ff.
27 Compare the peculiarly emotional sermon of Tauler referred to
above, and the following one, 17, 18, verse 20.
28 Since this is the sole purpose of these present remarks on
Luther, I have limited them to a brief preliminary sketch, which
would, of course, be wholly inadequate as an appraisal of
Luther’s influence as a whole.
29 One who shared the philosophy of history of the Levellers
would be in the fortunate position of being able to attribute this
in turn to racial differences. They believed themselves to be the
defenders of the Anglo-Saxon birthright, against the descend-
ants of William the Conqueror and the Normans. It is astonish-
ing enough that it has not yet occurred to anyone to maintain
that the plebeian Roundheads were round-headed in the
anthropometric sense!
30 Especially the English national pride, a result of Magna Charta
and the great wars. The saying, so typical to-day, “She looks like
an English girl” on seeing any pretty foreign girl, is reported as
early as the fifteenth century.
31 These differences have, of course, persisted in England as well.
Especially the Squirearchy has remained the centre of “merrie
old England” down to the present day, and the whole period
since the Reformation may be looked upon as a struggle of the
two elements in English society. In this point I agree with M. J.
Bonn’s remarks (in the Frankfurter Zeitung) on the excellent
study of v. Schulze-Gaevernitz on British Imperialism. Compare
H. Levy in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 46, 3.
32 In spite of this and the following remarks, which in my opinion
are clear enough, and have never been changed, I have again
and again been accused of this.
notes
171
4 THE RELIGIOUS FOUNDATIONS OF WORLDLY ASCETICISIM
1 Zwinglianism we do not discuss separately, since after a short
lease of power it rapidly lost in importance. Arminianism, the
dogmatic peculiarity of which consisted in the repudiation of
the doctrine of predestination in its strict form, and which also
repudiated worldly asceticism, was organized as a sect only in
Holland (and the United States). In this chapter it is without
interest to us, or has only the negative interest of having been
the religion of the merchant patricians in Holland (see below).
In dogma it resembled the Anglican Church and most of the
Methodist denominations. Its Erastian position (i.e. upholding
the sovereignty of the State even in Church matters) was, how-
ever, common to all the authorities with purely political inter-
ests: the Long Parliament in England, Elizabeth, the Dutch
States-General, and, above all, Oldenbarnereldt.
2 On the development of the concept of Puritanism see, above
all, Sanford, Studies and Reflections of the Great Rebellion, p. 65 f.
When we use the expression it is always in the sense which it
took on in the popular speech of the seventeenth century, to
mean the ascetically inclined religious movements in Holland
and England without distinction of Church organization or
dogma, thus including Independents, Congregationalists,
Baptists, Mennonites, and Quakers.
3 This has been badly misunderstood in the discussion of these
questions. Especially Sombart, but also Brentano, continually
cite the ethical writers (mostly those of whom they have heard
through me) as codifications of rules of conduct without ever
asking which of them were supported by psychologically effect-
ive religious sanctions.
4 I hardly need to emphasize that this sketch, so far as it is
concerned solely with the field of dogma, falls back everywhere
on the formulations of the literature of the history of the Church
and of doctrine. It makes no claim whatever to originality. Nat-
urally I have attempted, so far as possible, to acquaint myself
with the sources for the history of the Reformation. But to
ignore in the process the intensive and acute theological
notes
172
research of many decades, instead of, as is quite indispensable,
allowing oneself to be led from it to the sources, would have
been presumption indeed. I must hope that the necessary brev-
ity of the sketch has not led to incorrect formulations, and that I
have at least avoided important misunderstandings of fact. The
discussion contributes something new for those familiar with
theological literature only in the sense that the whole is, of
course, considered from the point of view of our problem. For
that reason many of the most important points, for instance
the rational character of this asceticism and its significance for
modern life, have naturally not been emphasized by theological
writers.
This aspect, and in general the sociological side, has, since
the appearance of this study, been systematically studied in the
work of E. Troeltsch, mentioned above, whose Dostları ilə paylaş: |