indus-
tria did he take from monastic lines of thought, no matter
through what intermediate links. Alberti, Pandolfini, and their
kind are representatives of that attitude which, in spite of all its
outward obedience, was inwardly already emancipated from
the tradition of the Church. With all its resemblance to the
current Christian ethic, it was to a large extent of the antique
pagan character, which Brentano thinks I have ignored in its
significance for the development of modern economic thought
(and also modern economic policy). That I do not deal with its
influence here is quite true. It would be out of place in a study
of the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. But, as will
notes
145
appear in a different connection, far from denying its signifi-
cance, I have been and am for good reasons of the opinion that
its sphere and direction of influence were entirely different from
those of the Protestant ethic (of which the spiritual ancestry, of
no small practical importance, lies in the sects and in the ethics
of Wyclif and Hus). It was not the mode of life of the rising
bourgeoisie which was influenced by this other attitude, but the
policy of statesmen and princes; and these two partly, but by no
means always, convergent lines of development should for
purposes of analysis be kept perfectly distinct. So far as Frank-
lin is concerned, his tracts of advice to business men, at pres-
ent used for school reading in America, belong in fact to a
category of works which have influenced practical life, far more
than Alberti’s large book, which hardly became known outside
of learned circles. But I have expressly denoted him as a man
who stood beyond the direct influence of the Puritan view
of life, which had paled considerably in the meantime, just
as the whole English enlightenment, the relations of which to
Puritanism have often been set forth.
13 Unfortunately Brentano ( op. cit.) has thrown every kind of
struggle for gain, whether peaceful or warlike, into one pot, and
has then set up as the specific criterion of capitalistic (as con-
trasted, for instance, with feudal) profit-seeking, its acquisitive-
ness of money (instead of land). Any further differentiation,
which alone could lead to a clear conception, he has not only
refused to make, but has made against the concept of the spirit
of (modern) capitalism which we have formed for our pur-
poses, the (to me) incomprehensible objection that it already
includes in its assumptions what is supposed to be proved.
14 Compare the, in every respect, excellent observations of Som-
bart, Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft im 19 ten Jahrhundert, p. 123. In
general I do not need specially to point out, although the fol-
lowing studies go back in their most important points of view
to much older work, how much they owe in their development
to the mere existence of Sombart’s important works, with their
pointed formulations and this even, perhaps especially, where
they take a different road. Even those who feel themselves con-
notes
146
tinually and decisively disagreeing with Sombart’s views, and
who reject many of his theses, have the duty to do so only after
a thorough study of his work.
15 Of course we cannot here enter into the question of where
these limits lie, nor can we evaluate the familiar theory of the
relation between high wages and the high productivity of labour
which was first suggested by Brassey, formulated and main-
tained theoretically by Brentano, and both historically and the-
oretically by Schulze-Gaevernitz. The discussion was again
opened by Hasbach’s penetrating studies ( Schmollers Jahrbuch,
1903, pp. 385–91 and 417 ff.), and is not yet finally settled. For
us it is here sufficient to assent to the fact which is not, and
cannot be, doubted by anyone, that low wages and high profits,
low wages and favourable opportunities for industrial devel-
opment, are at least not simply identical, that generally speak-
ing training for capitalistic culture, and with it the possibility of
capitalism as an economic system, are not brought about sim-
ply through mechanical financial operations. All examples are
purely illustrative.
16 It must be remembered that this was written twenty-five years
ago, when the above statement was by no means the common-
place that it is now, even among economists, to say nothing of
business men.—Translator’s Note.
17 The establishment even of capitalistic industries has hence
often not been possible without large migratory movements
from areas of older culture. However correct Sombart’s
remarks on the difference between the personal skill and trade
secrets of the handicraftsman and the scientific, objective
modern technique may be, at the time of the rise of capitalism
the difference hardly existed. In fact the, so to speak, ethical
qualities of the capitalistic workman (and to a certain extent
also of the entrepreneur) often had a higher scarcity value than
the skill of the craftsman, crystallized in traditions hundreds of
years old. And even present-day industry is not yet by any
means entirely independent in its choice of location of such
qualities of the population, acquired by long-standing tradi-
tion and education in intensive labour. It is congenial to the
notes
147
scientific prejudices of to-day, when such a dependence is
observed to ascribe it to congenital racial qualities rather than
to tradition and education, in my opinion with very doubtful
validity.
18 See my “Zur Psychophysik der gewerblichen Arbeit”, Archiv für
Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, XXVIII.
19 The foregoing observations might be misunderstood. The ten-
dency of a well-known type of business man to use the belief
that “religion must be maintained for the people” for his own
purpose, and the earlier not uncommon willingness of large
numbers, especially of the Lutheran clergy, from a general sym-
pathy with authority, to offer themselves as black police when
they wished to brand the strike as sin and trade unions as
furtherers of cupidity, all these are things with which our pres-
ent problem has nothing to do. The factors discussed in the
text do not concern occasional but very common facts, which,
as we shall see, continually recur in a typical manner.
20 Der moderne Kapitalismus, first edition, I, p. 62.
21 Ibid., p. 195.
22 Naturally that of the modern rational enterprise peculiar to the
Occident, not of the sort of capitalism spread over the world for
three thousand years, from China, India, Babylon, Greece,
Rome, Florence, to the present, carried on by usurers, military
contractors, traders in offices, tax-farmers, large merchants,
and financial magnates. See the Introduction.
23 The assumption is thus by no means justified a priori, that is all
I wish to bring out here, that on the one hand the technique of
the capitalistic enterprise, and on the other the spirit of profes-
sional work which gives to capitalism its expansive energy,
must have had their original roots in the same social classes.
Similarly with the social relationships of religious beliefs. Cal-
vinism was historically one of the agents of education in the
spirit of capitalism. But in the Netherlands, the large moneyed
interests were, for reasons which will be discussed later, not
predominately adherents of strict Calvinism, but Arminians.
The rising middle and small bourgeoisie, from which entre-
preneurs were principally recruited, were for the most part here
notes
148
and elsewhere typical representatives both of capitalistic ethics
and of Calvinistic religion. But that fits in very well with our
present thesis: there were at all times large bankers and mer-
chants. But a rational capitalistic organization of industrial
labour was never known until the transition from the Middle
Ages to modern times took place.
24 On this point see the good Zurich dissertation of J. Maliniak
(1913).
25 The following picture has been put together as an ideal type
from conditions found in different industrial branches and at
different places. For the purposes of illustration which it here
serves, it is of course of no consequence that the process has
not in any one of the examples we have in mind taken place in
precisely the manner we have described.
26 For this reason, among others, it is not by chance that this first
period of incipient (economic) rationalism in German industry
was accompanied by certain other phenomena, for instance the
catastrophic degradation of taste in the style of articles of
everyday use.
27 This is not to be understood as a claim that changes in the
supply of the precious metals are of no economic importance.
28 This is only meant to refer to the type of entrepreneur (business
man) whom we are making the object of our study, not any
empirical average type. On the concept of the ideal type see my
discussion in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik,
XIX, No. 1. (Republished since Weber’s death in the Gesam-
melte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre. The concept was first
thoroughly developed by Weber himself in these essays, and is
likely to be unfamiliar to non-German readers. It is one of the
most important aspects of Weber’s methodological work,
referred to in a note above—Translator’s Note.)
29 This is perhaps the most appropriate place to make a few
remarks concerning the essay of F. Keller, already referred to
(volume 12 of the publications of the Görres-Gesellschaft), and
Sombart’s observations (Der Bourgeois) in following it up, so
far as they are relevant in the present context. That an author
should criticize a study in which the canonical prohibition
notes
149
of interest (except in one incidental remark which has no
connection with the general argument) is not even mentioned,
on the assumption that this prohibition of interest, which has a
parallel in almost every religious ethic in the world, is taken to
be the decisive criterion of the difference between the Catholic
and Protestant ethics, is almost inconceivable. One should
really only criticize things which one has read, or the argument
of which, if read, one has not already forgotten. The campaign
against usuraria pravitas runs through both the Huguenot and
the Dutch Church history of the sixteenth century; Lombards,
i.e. bankers, were by virtue of that fact alone often excluded
from communion (see Chap. 1, note 17). The more liberal atti-
tude of Calvin (which did not, however, prevent the inclusion of
regulations against usury in the first plan of the ordinances) did
not gain a definite victory until Salmasius. Hence the difference
did not lie at this point; quite the contrary. But still worse are
the author’s own arguments on this point. Compared to the
works of Funck and other Catholic scholars (which he has not,
in my opinion, taken as fully into consideration as they
deserve), and the investigations of Endemann, which, however
obsolete in certain points to-day, are still fundamental, they
make a painful impression of superficiality. To be sure, Keller
has abstained from such excesses as the remarks of Sombart
(Der Bourgeois, p. 321) that one noticed how the “pious gentle-
men” (Bernard of Siena and Anthony of Florence) “wished to
excite the spirit of enterprise by every possible means”, that is,
since they, just like nearly everyone else concerned with the
prohibition of interest, interpreted it in such a way as to exempt
what we should call the productive investment of capital. That
Sombart, on the one hand, places the Romans among the
heroic peoples, and on the other, what is for his work as a whole
an impossible contradiction, considers economic rationalism
to have been developed to its final consequences in Cato
(p. 267), may be mentioned by the way as a symptom that this
is a book with a thesis in the worst sense.
He has also completely misrepresented the significance of
the prohibition of interest. This cannot be set forth here in
notes
150
detail. At one time it was often exaggerated, then strongly
underestimated, and now, in an era which produces Catholic
millionaires as well as Protestant, has been turned upside
down for apologetic purposes. As is well known, it was not, in
spite of Biblical authority, abolished until the last century by
order of the Congregatio S. Officii, and then only temporum
ratione habita and indirectly, namely, by forbidding confessors
to worry their charges by questions about usuraria pravitas, even
though no claim to obedience was given up in case it should be
restored. Anyone who has made a thorough study of the
extremely complicated history of the doctrine cannot claim,
considering the endless controversies over, for instance, the
justification of the purchase of bonds, the discounting of notes
and various other contracts (and above all considering the
order of the Congregatio S. Officii, mentioned above, concerning
a municipal loan), that the prohibition of interest was only
intended to apply to emergency loans, nor that it had the inten-
tion of preserving capital, or that it was even an aid to capital-
istic enterprise (p. 25). The truth is that the Church came to
reconsider the prohibition of interest comparatively late. At the
time when this happened the forms of purely business invest-
ment were not loans at fixed interest rate, but the fœnus nauti-
cum, commenda, societas maris, and the dare ad proficuum de
mari (a loan in which the shares of gain and loss were adjusted
according to degrees of risk), and were, considering the char-
acter of the return on loans to productive enterprise, necessar-
ily of that sort. These were not (or only according to a few
rigorous canonists) held to fall under the ban, but when
investment at a definite rate of interest and discounting became
possible and customary, the first sort of loans also encountered
very troublesome difficulties from the prohibition, which led to
various drastic measures of the merchant guilds (black lists).
But the treatment of usury on the part of the canonists was
generally purely legal and formal, and was certainly free from any
such tendency to protect capital as Keller ascribes to it. Finally, in
so far as any attitude towards capitalism as such can be ascer-
tained, the decisive factors were: on the one hand, a traditional,
notes
151
mostly inarticulate hostility towards the growing power of cap-
ital which was impersonal, and hence not readily amenable to
ethical control (as it is still reflected in Luther’s pronounce-
ments about the Fuggers and about the banking business); on
the other hand, the necessity of accommodation to practical
needs. But we cannot discuss this, for, as has been said, the
prohibition of usury and its fate can have at most a symptomatic
significance for us, and that only to a limited degree.
The economic ethic of the Scotists, and especially of certain
mendicant theologians of the fourteenth century, above all
Bernhard of Siena and Anthony of Florence, that is monks with
a specifically rational type of asceticism, undoubtedly deserves
a separate treatment, and cannot be disposed of incidentally in
our discussion. Otherwise I should be forced here, in reply to
criticism, to anticipate what I have to say in my discussion of
the economic ethics of Catholicism in its positive relations to
capitalism. These authors attempt, and in that anticipate some
of the Jesuits, to present the profit of the merchant as a reward
for his industria, and thus ethically to justify it. (Of course, even
Keller cannot claim more.)
The concept and the approval of industria come, of course,
in the last analysis from monastic asceticism, probably also
from the idea of masserizia, which Alberti, as he himself says
through the mouth of Gianozzo, takes over from clerical
sources. We shall later speak more fully of the sense in which
the monastic ethics is a forerunner of the worldly ascetic
denominations of Protestantism. In Greece, among the Cynics,
as shown by late-Hellenic tombstone inscriptions, and, with an
entirely different background, in Egypt, there were suggestions
of similar ideas. But what is for us the most important thing is
entirely lacking both here and in the case of Alberti. As we shall
see later, the characteristic Protestant conception of the proof
of one’s own salvation, the certitudo salutis in a calling, provided
the psychological sanctions which this religious belief put
behind the industria. But that Catholicism could not supply,
because its means to salvation were different. In effect these
authors are concerned with an ethical doctrine, not with
notes
152
motives to practical action, dependent on the desire for salva-
tion. Furthermore, they are, as is very easy to see, concerned
with concessions to practical necessity, not, as was worldly
asceticism, with deductions from fundamental religious
postulates. (Incidentally, Anthony and Bernhard have long ago
been better dealt with than by Keller.) And even these conces-
sions have remained an object of controversy down to the
present. Nevertheless the significance of these monastic
ethical conceptions as symptoms is by no means small.
But the real roots of the religious ethics which led the way to
the modern conception of a calling lay in the sects and the
heterodox movements, above all in Wyclif; although Brodnitz
( Englische Wirtschaftsgeschichte), who thinks his influence was
so great that Puritanism found nothing left for it to do, greatly
overestimates his significance. All that cannot be gone into
here. For here we can only discuss incidentally whether and to
what extent the Christian ethic of the Middle Ages had in fact
already prepared the way for the spirit of capitalism.
30 The words
` ’
´
(Luke vi. 35) and the translation
of the Vulgate, nihil inde sperantes, are thought (according to A.
Merx) to be a corruption of
’
´
(or meminem
desperantes), and thus to command the granting of loans to
all brothers, including the poor, without saying anything at
all about interest. The passage Deo placere vix potest is
now thought to be of Arian origin (which, if true, makes no
difference to our contentions).
31 How a compromise with the prohibition of usury was achieved
is shown, for example, in Book 1, chapter 65, of the statutes of
the Arte di Calimala (at present I have only the Italian edition in
Emiliani-Guidici, Stor. dei Com. Ital., III, p. 246), “Procurino i
consoli con quelli frate, che parrà loro, che perdono si faccia e
come fare si possa il meglio per l’amore di ciascuno, del dono,
merito o guiderdono, ovvero interesse per l’anno presente e
secondo che altra volta fatto fue.” It is thus a way for the guild
to secure exemption for its members on account of their official
positions, without defiance of authority. The suggestions
immediately following, as well as the immediately preceding
notes
153
idea to book all interest and profits as gifts, are very character-
istic of the amoral attitude towards profits on capital. To the
present stock exchange black list against brokers who hold
back the difference between top price and actual selling price,
often corresponded the outcry against those who pleaded
before the ecclesiastical court with the exceptio usurariæ
pravitatis.
3 LUTHER’S CONCEPTION OF THE CALLING
1 Of the ancient languages only Hebrew has any similar concept.
Most of all in the word
hkf)lfm\. It is used for sacerdotal func-
tions (Exod, xxxv. 21; Neh. xi. 22; 1 Chron. ix. 13; xxiii. 4; xxvi. 30),
for business in the service of the king (especially 1 Sam. viii. 16;
1 Chron. iv. 23; xxix. 26), for the service of a royal official (Esther
iii. 9; ix. 3), of a superintendant of labour (2 Kings xii. 12), of a
slave (Gen. xxxix. 11), of labour in the fields (1 Chron. xxvii. 26),
of craftsmen (Exod. xxxi. 5; xxxv. 21; 1 Kings vii. 14), for traders
(Psa. cvii. 23), and for worldly activity of any kind in the pas-
sage, Sirach xi. 20, to be discussed later. The word is derived
from the root
r7)l, to send, thus meaning originally a task. That
it originated in the ideas current in Solomon’s bureaucratic
kingdom of serfs (Fronstaat), built up as it was according to the
Egyptian model, seems evident from the above references. In
meaning, however, as I learn from A. Merx, this root concept
had become lost even in antiquity. The word came to be used
for any sort of labour, and in fact became fully as colourless as
the German Beruf, with which it shared the fate of being used
primarily for mental and not manual functions. The expression
(
qx), assignment, task, lesson, which also occurs in Sirach xi.
20, and is translated in the Septuagint with
, is also
derived from the terminology of the servile bureaucratic regime
of the time, as is
s$wyrkAd; (Exod. v. 13, cf. Exod. v. 14), where
the Septuagint also uses
for task. In Sirach xliii. 10 it is
rendered in the Septuagint with
´
. In Sirach xi. 20 it is
evidently used to signify the fulfillment of God’s command-
ments, being thus related to our calling. On this passage in
notes
154
Jesus Sirach reference may here be made to Smend’s well-
known book on Jesus Sirach, and for the words
,
´’
,
, to his Dostları ilə paylaş: |