The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Common-
wealth, 1876. On the history of the Baptists, compare, among
others, H. M. Dexter, The True Story of John Smyth, the Se-
Baptist, as told by himself and his contemporaries, Boston,
1881 (also J. C. Lang in The Baptist Quarterly Review, 1883, p. 1);
J. Murch, A History of the Presb. and Gen. Bapt. Church in the
West of England, London, 1835; A. H. Newman, History of the
Baptist Church in the U.S., New York, 1894 (Am. Church Hist.
Series, vol. 2); Vedder, A Short History of the Baptists, London,
1897; E. B. Bax, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists, New York,
1902; G. Lorimer, The Baptists in History, 1902; J. A. Seiss, The
Baptist System Examined, Lutheran Publication Society, 1902;
further material in the Baptist Handbook, London, 1896 ff.;
Baptist Manuals, Paris, 1891–93; The Baptist Quarterly Review;
and the Bibliotheca Sacra, Oberlin, 1900.
The best Baptist library seems to be that of Colgate College
in the State of New York. For the history of the Quakers the
collection in Devonshire House in London is considered the
best (not available to me). The official modern organ of ortho-
doxy is the American Friend, edited by Professor Jones; the
best Quaker history that of Rowntree. In addition Rufus B.
Jones, George Fox, an Autobiography, Phila., 1903; Alton C.
Thomas, A History of the Society of Friends in America, Phila.,
1895; Edward Grubbe, Social Aspects of the Quaker Faith,
London, 1899. Also the copious and excellent biographical
literature.
170 It is one of the many merits of Karl Müller’s Kirchengeschichte
to have given the Baptist movement, great in its way, even
though outwardly unassuming, the place it deserved in his
work. It has suffered more than any other from the pitiless
persecution of all the Churches, because it wished to be a sect
in the specific sense of that word. Even after five generations it
was discredited before the eyes of all the world by the debacle
of the related eschatological experiment in Münster. And, con-
tinually oppressed and driven underground, it was long after
its origin before it attained a consistent formulation of its
religious doctrines. Thus it produced even less theology than
notes
220
would have been consistent with its principles, which were
themselves hostile to a specialized development of its faith in
God as a science. That was not very pleasing to the older
professional theologians, even in its own time, and it made
little impression on them. But many more recent ones have
taken the same attitude. In Ritschl, Pietismus, I, pp. 22 f.,
the rebaptizers are not very adequately, in fact, rather con-
temptuously, treated. One is tempted to speak of a theological
bourgeois standpoint. That, in spite of the fact that Cor-
nelius’s fine work (Geschichte des Münsterschen Aufruhrs) had
been available for decades.
Here also Ritschl everywhere sees a retrogression from his
standpoint toward Catholicism, and suspects direct influ-
ences of the radical wing of the Franciscan tradition. Even if
such could be proved in a few cases, these threads would be
very thin. Above all, the historical fact was probably that the
official Catholic Church, wherever the worldly asceticism of
the laity went as far as the formation of conventicles, regarded
it with the utmost suspicion and attempted to encourage the
formation of orders, thus outside the world, or to attach it as
asceticism of the second grade to the existing orders and
bring it under control. Where this did not succeed, it felt the
danger that the practice of subjectivist ascetic morality might
lead to the denial of authority and to heresy, just as, and with
the same justification, the Elizabethan Church felt toward the
half-Pietistic prophesying Bible conventicles, even when their
conformism was undoubted; a feeling which was expressed by
the Stuarts in their Book of Sports, of which later. The history of
numerous heretical movements, including, for instance, the
Humiliati and the Beguins, as well as the fate of St. Francis,
are the proofs of it. The preaching of the mendicant friars,
especially the Franciscans, probably did much to prepare the
way for the ascetic lay morality of Calvinist-Baptist Protestant-
ism. But the numerous close relationships between the
asceticism of Western monasticism and the ascetic conduct
of Protestantism, the importance of which must continually
be stressed for our particular problems, are based in the last
notes
221
analysis on the fact that important factors are necessarily
common to every asceticism on the basis of Biblical Chris-
tianity. Furthermore, every asceticism, no matter what its
faith, has need of certain tried methods of subduing the flesh.
Of the following sketch it may further be remarked that its
brevity is due to the fact that the Baptist ethic is of only very
limited importance for the problem considered primarily in
this study, the development of the religious background of the
bourgeois idea of the calling. It contributed nothing new what-
ever to it. The much more important social aspect of the move-
ment must for the present remain untouched. Of the history
of the older Baptist movement, we can, from the view-point
of our problem, present here only what was later important
for the development of the sects in which we are interested:
Baptists, Quakers, and, more incidentally, Mennonites.
171 See above [note 92].
172 On their origin and changes, see A. Ritschl in his Gesammelte
Aufsätze, pp. 69 f.
173 Naturally the Baptists have always repudiated the designation
of a sect. They form the Church in the sense of the Epistle to
the Ephesians v. 27. But in our terminology they form a sect
not only because they lack all relation to the State. The relation
between Church and State of early Christianity was even for
the Quakers (Barclay) their ideal; for to them, as to many
Pietists, only a Church under the Cross was beyond suspicion
of its purity. But the Calvinists as well, faute de mieux, similarly
even the Catholic Church in the same circumstances, were
forced to favour the separation of Church and State under an
unbelieving State or under the Cross. Neither were they a sect,
because induction to membership in the Church took place de
facto through a contract between the congregation and the
candidates. For that was formally the case in the Dutch
Reformed communities (as a result of the original political
situation) in accordance with the old Church constitution (see
v. Hoffmann, Kirchenverfassungsrecht der niederl. Reformierten,
Leipzig, 1902).
On the contrary, it was because such a religious community
notes
222
could only be voluntarily organized as a sect, not compulsorily
as a Church, if it did not wish to include the unregenerate and
thus depart from the Early Christian ideal. For the Baptist
communities it was an essential of the very idea of their
Church, while for the Calvinists it was an historical accident.
To be sure, that the latter were also urged by very definite
religious motives in the direction of the believers’ Church has
already been indicated. On the distinction between Church
and sect, see the following essay. The concept of sect which I
have adopted here has been used at about the same time and,
I assume, independently from me, by Kattenbusch in the
Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche
(Article Sekte). Troeltsch in his Die Soziallehren der christlichen
Kirchen und Gruppen accepts it and discusses it more in detail.
See also below, the introduction to the essays on the Wirt-
schaftsethik der Weltreligionen.
174 How important this symbol was, historically, for the conserva-
tion of the Church community, since it was an unambiguous
and unmistakable sign, has been very clearly shown by Cor-
nelius, op. cit.
175 Certain approaches to it in the Mennonites’ doctrine of justifi-
cation need not concern us here.
176 This idea is perhaps the basis of the religious interest in the
discussion of questions like the incarnation of Christ and his
relationship to the Virgin Mary, which, often as the sole purely
dogmatic part, stands out so strangely in the oldest docu-
ments of Baptism (for instance the confessions printed in
Cornelius, op. cit., Appendix to Vol. II. On this question, see K.
Müller, Kirchengeschichte, II, i, p. 330). The difference between
the christology of the Reformed Church and the Lutheran (in
the doctrine of the so-called communicatio idiomatum) seems
to have been based on similar religious interests.
177 It was expressed especially in the original strict avoidance
even of everyday intercourse with the excommunicated, a
point at which even the Calvinists, who in principle held the
opinion that worldly affairs were not affected by spiritual cen-
sure, made large concessions. See the following essay.
notes
223
178 How this principle was applied by the Quakers to seemingly
trivial externals (refusal to remove the hat, to kneel, bow, or
use formal address) is well known. The basic idea is to a
certain extent characteristic of all asceticism. Hence the fact
that true asceticism is always hostile to authority. In Calvinism
it appeared in the principle that only Christ should rule in the
Church. In the case of Pietism one may think of Spener’s
attempts to find a Biblical justification of titles. Catholic
asceticism, so far as ecclesiastical authority was concerned,
broke through this tendency in its oath of obedience, by
interpreting obedience itself in ascetic terms. The overturning
of this principle in Protestant asceticism is the historical basis
of the peculiarities of even the contemporary democracy of the
peoples influenced by Puritanism as distinct from that of the
Latin spirit. It is also part of the historical background of
that lack of respect of the American which is, as the case may
be, so irritating or so refreshing.
179 No doubt this was true from the beginning for the Baptists
essentially only of the New Testament, not to the same extent
of the Old. Especially the Sermon on the Mount enjoyed a
peculiar prestige as a programme of social ethic in all
denominations.
180 Even Schwenkfeld had considered the outward performance
of the sacraments an adiaphoron, while the General Baptists
and the Mennonites held strictly to Baptism and the Com-
munion, the Mennonites to the washing of feet in addition.
On the other hand, for the predestinationists the depreciation,
in fact for all except the communion—one may even say the
suspicion—in which the sacraments were held, went very far.
See the following essay.
181 On this point the Baptist denominations, especially the Quak-
ers (Barclay, Apology for the True Christian Divinity, fourth edi-
tion, London, 1701, kindly placed at my disposal by Eduard
Bernstein), referred to Calvin’s statements in the Instit. Christ,
III, p. 2, where in fact quite unmistakable suggestions of Bap-
tist doctrine are to be found. Also the older distinction
between the Word of God as that which God had revealed to
notes
224
the patriarchs, the prophets, and the apostles, and the Holy
Scriptures as that part of it which they had written down, was,
even though there was no historical connection, intimately
related to the Baptist conception of revelation. The mechan-
ical idea of inspiration, and with it the strict bibliocracy of the
Calvinists, was just as much the product of their development
in one direction in the course of the sixteenth century as the
doctrine of the inner light of the Quakers, derived from Baptist
sources, was the result of a directly opposite development.
The sharp differentiation was also in this case partly a result of
continual disputes.
182 That was emphasized strongly against certain tendencies of
the Socinians. The natural reason knows nothing whatever of
God (Barclay, op. cit., p. 102). That meant that the part played
by the lex naturæ elsewhere in Protestantism was altered. In
principle there could be no general rules, no moral code, for
the calling which everyone had, and which is different for every
individual, is revealed to him by God through his conscience.
We should do, not the good in the general sense of natural
reason, but God’s will as it is written in our hearts and known
through the conscience (Barclay, pp. 73, 76). This irrationality
of morality, derived from the exaggerated contrast between
the divine and the flesh, is expressed in these fundamental
tenets of Quaker ethics: “What a man does contrary to his
faith, though his faith may be wrong, is in no way acceptable
to God—though the thing might have been lawful to another”
(Barclay, p. 487). Of course that could not be upheld in prac-
tice. The “moral and perpetual statutes acknowledged by all
Christians” are, for instance, for Barclay the limit of toleration.
In practice the contemporaries felt their ethic, with certain
peculiarities of its own, to be similar to that of the Reformed
Pietists. “Everything good in the Church is suspected of being
Quakerism”, as Spener repeatedly points out. It thus seems
that Spener envied the Quakers this reputation. Cons. Theol.,
III, 6, 1, Dist. 2, No. 64. The repudiation of oaths on the basis of
a passage in the Bible shows that the real emancipation from
the Scriptures had not gone far. The significance for social
notes
225
ethics of the principle, “Do unto others as you would that they
should do unto you”, which many Quakers regarded as the
essence of the whole Christian ethics, need not concern us
here.
183 The necessity of assuming this possibility Barclay justifies
because without it “there should never be a place known by
the Saints wherein they might be free of doubting and despair,
which—is most absurd”. It is evident that the certitudo salutis
depends upon it. Thus Barclay, op. cit., p. 20.
184 There thus remains a difference in type between the Calvinistic
and the Quaker rationalization of life. But when Baxter formu-
lates it by saying that the spirit is supposed by the Quakers to
act upon the soul as on a corpse, while the characteristically
formulated Calvinistic principle is “reason and spirit are con-
junct principles” ( Christian Directory, II, p. 76), the distinction
was no longer valid for his time in this form.
185 Thus in the very careful articles “Menno” and “Mennoniten”
by Cramer in the Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie
und Kirche, especially p. 604. However excellent these art-
icles are, the article “Baptisten” in the same encyclopedia is
not very penetrating and in part simply incorrect. Its author
does not know, for instance, the Publications of the Hanserd
Knolly’s Society, which are indispensable for the history of
Baptism.
186 Thus Barclay, op. cit., p. 404, explains that eating, drinking,
and acquisition are natural, not spiritual acts, which may be
performed without the special sanction of God. The explan-
ation is in reply to the characteristic objection that if, as the
Quakers teach, one cannot pray without a special motion
of the Spirit, the same should apply to ploughing. It is, of
course, significant that even in the modern resolutions of
Quaker Synods the advice is sometimes given to retire
from business after acquiring a sufficient fortune, in order,
withdrawn from the bustle of the world, to be able to live in
devotion to the Kingdom of God alone. But the same idea
certainly occurs occasionally in other denominations, includ-
ing Calvinism. That betrays the fact that the acceptance of the
notes
226
bourgeois practical ethics by these movements was the
worldly application of an asceticism which had originally fled
from the world.
187 Veblen in his suggestive book The Theory of Business Enterprise
is of the opinion that this motto belongs only to early capital-
ism. But economic supermen, who, like the present captains
of industry, have stood beyond good and evil, have always
existed, and the statement is still true of the broad underlying
strata of business men.
188 We may here again expressly call attention to the excellent
remarks of Eduard Bernstein, op. cit. To Kautsky’s highly
schematic treatment of the Baptist movement and his theory
of heretical communism in general (in the first volume of the
same work) we shall return on another occasion.
189 “In civil actions it is good to be as the many, in religious to be
as the best”, says, for example, Thomas Adams ( Works of the
Puritan Divines, p. 138). That sounds somewhat more drastic
than it is meant to be. It means that the Puritan honesty is
formalistic legality, just as the uprightness which the some-
time Puritan people like to claim as a national virtue is some-
thing specifically different from the German Ehrlichkeit. Some
good remarks on the subject from the educational standpoint
may be found in the Preuss. Jahrb., CXII (1903), p. 226. The
formalism of the Puritan ethic is in turn the natural con-
sequence of its relation to the law.
190 Something is said on this in the following essay.
191 This is the reason for the economic importance of the ascetic
Protestant, but not Catholic, minorities.
192 That the difference of dogmatic basis was not inconsistent
with the adoption of the most important interest in proof is
to be explained in the last analysis by the historical peculiar-
ities of Christianity in general which cannot be discussed
here.
193 “Since God hath gathered us to be a people”, says Barclay, op.
cit., p. 357. I myself heard a Quaker sermon at Haverford Col-
lege which laid great emphasis on the interpretation of saints
as meaning separate.
notes
227
5 ASCETICISM AND THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM
1 See the excellent sketch of his character in Dowden, op. cit. A
passable introduction to Baxter’s theology, after he had aban-
doned a strict belief in the double decree, is given in the intro-
duction to the various extracts from his works printed in the
Works of the Puritan Divines (by Jenkyn). His attempt to com-
bine universal redemption and personal election satisfied no
one. For us it is important only that he even then held to per-
sonal election, i.e. to the most important point for ethics in the
doctrine of predestination. On the other hand, his weakening of
the forensic view of redemption is important as being suggest-
ive of baptism.
2 Tracts and sermons by Thomas Adams, John Howe, Matthew
Henry, J. Janeway, Stuart Charnock, Baxter, Bunyan, have been
collected in the ten volumes of the Works of the Puritan Divines
(London, 1845–8), though the choice is often somewhat arbi-
trary. Editions of the works of Bailey, Sedgwick, and Hoornbeek
have already been referred to.
3 We could just as well have included Voet and other continental
representatives of worldly asceticism. Brentano’s view that the
whole development was purely Anglo-Saxon is quite wrong. My
choice is motivated mainly (though not exclusively) by the wish
to present the ascetic movement as much as possible in the
second half of the seventeenth century, immediately before the
change to utilitarianism. It has unfortunately been impossible,
within the limits of this sketch, to enter upon the fascinating
task of presenting the characteristics of ascetic Protestantism
through the medium of the biographical literature; the Quakers
would in this connection be particularly important, since they
are relatively little known in Germany.
4 For one might just as well take the writings of Gisbert Voet, the
proceedings of the Huguenot Synods, or the Dutch Baptist lit-
erature. Sombart and Brentano have unfortunately taken just
the ebionitic parts of Baxter, which I myself have strongly
emphasized, to confront me with the undoubted capitalistic
backwardness of his doctrines. But (1) one must know this
notes
228
whole literature thoroughly in order to use it correctly, and (2)
not overlook the fact that I have attempted to show how, in
spite of its anti-mammonistic doctrines, the spirit of this
ascetic religion nevertheless, just as in the monastic com-
munities, gave birth to economic rationalism because it
placed a premium on what was most important for it: the fun-
damentally ascetic rational motives. That fact alone is under
discussion and is the point of this whole essay.
5 Similarly in Calvin, who was certainly no champion of bour-
geois wealth (see the sharp attacks on Venice and Antwerp in
Jes. Opp. , III, 140a, 308a).
6 Saints’ Everlasting Rest, chaps. x, xii. Compare Bailey ( Dostları ilə paylaş: |