The Worth of the Soul,
Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 313).
103 In contrast to that, Luther himself said: “Weeping goes before
action and suffering excells all accomplishment” (Weinen geht
vor Wirken und Leiden übertrifft alles tun).
104 This is also shown most clearly in the development of the
ethical theory of Lutheranism. On this see Hoennicke, Studien
zur altprotestantischen Ethik (Berlin, 1902), and the instructive
notes
200
review of it by E. Troeltsch, Gött. Gel. Anz., 1902, No. 8. The
approach of the Lutheran doctrine, especially to the older
orthodox Calvinistic, was in form often very close. But the
difference of religious background was always apparent. In
order to establish a connection between morality and faith,
Melanchthon had placed the idea of repentance in the fore-
ground. Repentance through the law must precede faith, but
good works must follow it, otherwise it cannot be the truly
justifying faith—almost a Puritan formula. Melanchthon
admitted a certain degree of perfection to be attainable on
earth. He had, in fact, originally taught that justification was
given in order to make men capable of good works, and in
increasing perfection lay at least the relative degree of bless-
edness which faith could give in this world. Also later Lutheran
theologians held that good works are the necessary fruits of
faith, that faith results in a new external life, just as the
Reformed preachers did. The question in what good works
consist Melanchthon, and especially the later Lutherans,
answered more and more by reference to the law. There
remained of Luther’s original doctrines only the lesser degree
of seriousness with which the Bible, especially the particular
norms of the Old Testament, was taken. The decalogue
remained, as a codification of the most important ideas of the
natural moral law, the essential norm of human action. But
there was no firm limit connecting its legal validity with the
more and more strongly emphasized importance of faith for
justification, because this faith (see above) had a funda-
mentally different psychological character from the Calvinistic.
The true Lutheran standpoint of the early period had to be
abandoned by a Church which looked upon itself as an institu-
tion for salvation. But another had not been found. Especially
was it impossible, for fear of losing their dogmatic foundation
(sola fide!), to accept the ascetic rationalization of conduct as
the moral task of the individual. For there was no motive to
give the idea of proof such a significance as it attained in
Calvinism through the doctrine of predestination. Moreover,
the magical interpretation of the sacraments, combined with
notes
201
the lack of this doctrine, especially the association of the
regeneratio, or at least its beginning with baptism, necessarily,
assuming as it did the universality of grace, hindered the
development of methodical morality. For it weakened the con-
trast between the state of nature and the state of grace, espe-
cially when combined with the strong Lutheran emphasis on
original sin. No less important was the entirely forensic inter-
pretation of the act of justification which assumed that God’s
decrees might be changed through the influence of particular
acts of repentance of the converted sinner. And that was just
the element to which Melanchthon gave increasing emphasis.
The whole development of his doctrine, which gave increasing
weight to repentance, was intimately connected with his pro-
fession of the freedom of the will. That was what primarily
determined the unmethodical character of Lutheran conduct.
Particular acts of grace for particular sins, not the develop-
ment of an aristocracy of saints creating the certainty of their
own salvation, was the necessary form salvation took for the
average Lutheran, as the retention of the confession proves.
Thus it could develop neither a morality free from the law nor
a rational asceticism in terms of the law. Rather the law
remained in an unorganic proximity to faith as an ideal, and,
moreover, since the strict dependence on the Bible was
avoided as suggesting salvation by works, it remained
uncertain, vague, and, above all, unsystematic in its content.
Their conduct remained, as Troeltsch has said of their ethical
theory, a “sum of mere beginnings which never quite material-
ized”; which, “taught in particular, uncertain, and unrelated
maxims”, did not succeed in “working out an articulate sys-
tem of conduct”, but formed essentially, following the devel-
opment through which Luther himself (see above) had gone,
a resignation to things as they were in matters both small and
great. The resignation of the Germans to foreign cultures,
their rapid change of nationality, of which there is so much
complaint, is clearly to be attributed, along with certain polit-
ical circumstances in the history of the nation, in part to the
results of this influence, which still affects all aspects of our
notes
202
life. The subjective assimilation of culture remained weak
because it took place primarily by means of a passive absorp-
tion of what was authoritatively presented.
105 On these points, see the gossipy book of Tholuck, Vorge-
schichte des Rationalismus.
106 On the quite different results of the Mohammedan doctrine of
predestination (or rather predetermination) and the reasons
for it, see the theological dissertation (Heidelberg) of
F. Ullrich, Die Vorherbestimmungslehre im Islam u. Ch., 1912.
On that of the Jansenists, see P. Honigsheim, op. cit.
107 See the following essay in this collection (not translated here).
108 Ritschl, Geschichte des Pietismus, I, p. 152, attempts to dis-
tinguish them for the time before Labadie (only on the basis of
examples from the Netherlands) (1) in that the Pietists formed
conventicles; (2) they held the doctrine of the “worthlessness
of existence in the flesh” in a “manner contrary to the Protest-
ant interests in salvation”; (3) “the assurance of grace in the
tender relationship with the Lord Jesus” was sought in an un-
Calvinistic manner. The last criterion applies for this early
period only to one of the cases with which he deals. The idea
of worthlessness of the flesh was in itself a true child of the
Calvinistic spirit, and only where it led to practical renunciation
of the world was it antagonistic to normal Protestantism.
The conventicles, finally, had been established to a certain
extent (especially for catechistic purposes) by the Synod of
Dordrecht itself. Of the criteria of Pietism analysed in Ritschl’s
previous discussion, those worth considering are (1) the
greater precision with which the letter of the Bible was fol-
lowed in all external affairs of life, as Gisbert Voet for a time
urged; (2) the treatment of justification and reconciliation
with God, not as ends in themselves, but simply as means
toward a holy ascetic life as can be seen perhaps in Loden-
steyn, but as is also suggested by Melanchthon [see above,
note 104]; (3) the high value placed on repentance as a sign of
true regeneration, as was first taught by W. Teellinck; (4)
abstention from communion when unregenerate persons
partake of it (of which we shall speak in another connection).
notes
203
Connected with that was the formation of conventicles with a
revival of prophecy, i.e. interpretation of the Scriptures by lay-
men, even women. That went beyond the limits set by the
canons of Dordrecht.
Those are all things forming departures, sometimes con-
siderable, from both the doctrine and practice of the Reform-
ers. But compared with the movements which Ritschl does
not include in his treatment, especially the English Puritans,
they form, except for No. 3, only a continuation of tendencies
which lay in the whole line of development of this religion. The
objectivity of Ritschl’s treatment suffers from the fact that the
great scholar allows his personal attitude towards the Church
or, perhaps better, religious policy, to enter in, and, in his
antipathy to all peculiarly ascetic forms of religion, interprets
any development in that direction as a step back into Catholi-
cism. But, like Catholicism, the older Protestantism included
all sorts and conditions of men. But that did not prevent the
Catholic Church from repudiating rigorous worldly asceticism
in the form of Jansenism; just as Pietism repudiated the pecu-
liar Catholic Quietism of the seventeenth century. From our
special view-point Pietism differs not in degree, but in kind
from Calvinism only when the increasing fear of the world
leads to flight from ordinary economic life and the formation
of monastic-communistic conventicles (Labadie). Or, which
has been attributed to certain extreme Pietists by their con-
temporaries, they were led deliberately to neglect worldly
duties in favour of contemplation. This naturally happened
with particular frequency when contemplation began to
assume the character which Ritschl calls Bernardism, because
it suggests St. Bernard’s interpretation of the Song of Songs; a
mystical, emotional form of religion seeking the unio mystica
with an esoteric sexual tinge. Even from the view-point of
religious psychology alone this is undoubtedly something
quite different from Calvinism, including its ascetic form
exemplified by men like Voet. Ritschl, however, everywhere
attempts to connect this quietism with the Pietist asceticism
and thus to bring the latter under the same indictment; in
notes
204
doing so he puts his finger on every quotation from Catholic
mysticism or asceticism which he can find in Pietist literature.
But English and Dutch moralists and theologians who are
quite beyond suspicion cite Bernard, Bonaventura, and
Thomas à Kempis. The relationship of all the Reformation
Churches to the Catholic past was very complex and, according
to the point of view which is emphasized, one or another ap-
pears most closely related to Catholicism or certain sides of it.
109 The illuminating article on “Pietism” by Mirbt in the third
edition of the Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie
und Kirche, treats the origin of Pietism, leaving its Protestant
antecedents entirely on one side, as a purely personal
religious experience of Spener, which is somewhat improb-
able. As an introduction to Pietism, Gustav Freytag’s descrip-
tion in Bilder der deutschen Vergangenheit is still worth reading.
For the beginnings of English Pietism in the contemporary
literature, compare W. Whitaker, Prima Instituto disciplinaque
pietatis (1570).
110 It is well known that this attitude made it possible for Piet-
ism to be one of the main forces behind the idea of toler-
ation. At this point we may insert a few remarks on that
subject. In the West its historical origin, if we omit the
humanistic indifference of the Enlightenment, which in itself
has never had great practical influence, is to be found in the
following principal sources: (1) Purely political expediency
(type: William of Orange). (2) Mercantilism (especially clear
for the City of Amsterdam, but also typical of numerous cit-
ies, landlords, and rulers who received the members of sects
as valuable for economic progress). (3) The radical wing of
Calvinism. Predestination made it fundamentally impossible
for the State really to promote religion by intolerance. It
could not thereby save a single soul. Only the idea of the
glory of God gave the Church occasion to claim its help in
the suppression of heresy. Now the greater the emphasis on
the membership of the preacher, and all those that partook
of the communion, in the elect, the more intolerable became
the interference of the State in the appointment of the clergy.
notes
205
For clerical positions were often granted as benefices to men
from the universities only because of their theological train-
ing, though they might be personally unregenerate. In general,
any interference in the affairs of the religious community by
those in political power, whose conduct might often be
unsatisfactory, was resented. Reformed Pietism strengthened
this tendency by weakening the emphasis on doctrinal ortho-
doxy and by gradually undermining the principle of extra
ecclesiam nulla salus.
Calvin had regarded the subjection of the damned to the
divine supervision of the Church as alone consistent with the
glory of God; in New England the attempt was made to con-
stitute the Church as an aristocracy of proved saints. Even
the radical Independents, however, repudiated every interfer-
ence of temporal or any sort of hierarchical powers with the
proof of salvation which was only possible within the indi-
vidual community. The idea that the glory of God requires
the subjection of the damned to the discipline of the Church
was gradually superseded by the other idea, which was pres-
ent from the beginning and became gradually more promin-
ent, that it was an insult to His glory to partake of the Com-
munion with one rejected by God. That necessarily led to
voluntarism, for it led to the believers’ Church the religious
community which included only the twice-born. Calvinistic
Baptism, to which, for instance, the leader of the Parliament
of Saints Praisegod Barebones belonged, drew the con-
sequences of this line of thought with great emphasis.
Cromwell’s army upheld the liberty of conscience and the
parliament of saints even advocated the separation of
Church and State, because its members were good Pietists,
thus on positive religious grounds. (4) The Baptist sects,
which we shall discuss later, have from the beginning of their
history most strongly and consistently maintained the prin-
ciple that only those personally regenerated could be admit-
ted to the Church. Hence they repudiated every conception
of the Church as an institution ( Anstalt) and every interfer-
ence of the temporal power. Here also it was for positive
notes
206
religious reasons that unconditional toleration was
advocated.
The first man who stood out for absolute toleration and the
separation of Church and State, almost a generation before
the Baptists and two before Roger Williams, was probably
John Browne. The first declaration of a Church group in this
sense appears to be the resolution of the English Baptists in
Amsterdam of 1612 or 1613: “The magistrate is not to middle
with religion or matters of conscience . . . because Christ is
the King and Law-giver of the Church and conscience.” The
first official document of a Church which claimed the positive
protection of liberty of conscience by the State as a right was
probably Article 44 of the Confession of the Particular Baptists
of 1644.
Let it be emphatically stated again that the idea sometimes
brought forward, that toleration as such was favourable to
capitalism, is naturally quite wrong. Religious toleration is nei-
ther peculiar to modern times nor to the West. It has ruled in
China, in India, in the great empires of the Near East in Hel-
lenistic times, in the Roman Empire and the Mohammedan
Empires for long periods to a degree only limited by reasons
of political expediency (which form its limits to-day also!)
which was attained nowhere in the world in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. Moreover, it was least strong in those
areas which were dominated by Puritanism, as, for instance,
Holland and Zeeland in their period of political and economic
expansion or in Puritan old or New England. Both before arid
after the Reformation, religious intolerance was peculiarly
characteristic of the Occident as of the Sassanian Empire.
Similarly, it has prevailed in China, Japan, and India at certain
particular times, though mostly for political reasons. Thus
toleration as such certainly has nothing whatever to do with
capitalism. The real question, Who benefited by it? Of the
consequences of the believers’ Church we shall speak further
in the following article.
111 This idea is illustrated in its practical application by
Cromwell’s tryers, the examiners of candidates for the
notes
207
position of preacher. They attempted to ascertain not only the
knowledge of theology, but also the subjective state of grace of
the candidate. See also the following article.
112 The characteristic Pietistic distrust of Aristotle and classical
philosophy in general is suggested in Calvin himself (compare
Instit. Christ, II, chap. ii, p. 4; III, chap. xxiii, p. 5; IV, chap. xvii,
p. 24). Luther in his early days distrusted it no less, but that
was later changed by the humanistic influence (especially of
Melanchthon) and the urgent need of ammunition for apolo-
getic purposes. That everything necessary for salvation was
contained in the Scriptures plainly enough for even the
untutored was, of course, taught by the Westminster Confes-
sion (chap. i, No. 7.), in conformity with the whole Protestant
tradition.
113 The official Churches protested against this, as, for example,
in the shorter catechism of the Scotch Presbyterian Church of
1648, sec. vii. Participation of those not members of the same
family in family devotions was forbidden as interference with
the prerogatives of the office. Pietism, like every ascetic
community-forming movement, tended to loosen the ties of
the individual with domestic patriarchalism, with its interest
in the prestige of office.
114 We are here for good reasons intentionally neglecting discus-
sion of the psychological, in the technical sense of the word,
aspect of these religious phenomena, and even its termin-
ology has been as far as possible avoided. The firmly estab-
lished results of psychology, including psychiatry, do not as
present go far enough to make them of use for the purposes
of the historical investigation of our problems without preju-
dicing historical judgments. The use of its terminology would
only form a temptation to hide phenomena which were
immediately understandable, or even sometimes trivial,
behind a veil of foreign words, and thus give a false impres-
sion of scientific exactitude, such as is unfortunately typical of
Lamprecht. For a more serious attempt to make use of psy-
chological concepts in the interpretation of certain historical
mass phenomena, see W. Hellpach, Grundlinien zu einer
notes
208
Psychologie der Hysterie, chap. xii, as well as his Nervosität und
Kultur. I cannot here attempt to explain that in my opinion
even this many-sided writer has been harmfully influenced by
certain of Lamprecht’s theories. How completely worthless, as
compared with the older literature, Lamprecht’s schematic
treatment of Pietism is (in Vol. VII of the Deutsche Geschichte)
everyone knows who has the slightest acquaintance with the
literature.
115 Thus with the adherents of Schortinghuis’s Innige Christen-
dom. In the history of religion it goes back to the verse about
the servant of God in Isaiah and the 22nd Psalm.
116 This appeared occasionally in Dutch Pietism and then under
the influence of Spinoza.
117 Labadie, Teersteegen, etc.
118 Perhaps this appears most clearly when he (Spener !) disputes
the authority of the Government to control the conventicles
except in cases of disorder and abuses, because it concerns a
fundamental right of Christians guaranteed by apostolic
authority ( Theologische Bedenken, II, pp. 81 f.). That is, in prin-
ciple, exactly the Puritan standpoint regarding the relations of
the individual to authority and the extent to which individual
rights, which follow ex jure divino and are therefore inalienable,
are valid. Neither this heresy, nor the one mentioned farther
on in the text, has escaped Ritschl ( Pietismus, II, pp. 115, 157).
However unhistorical the positivistic (not to say philistine)
criticism to which he has subjected the idea of natural rights
to which we are nevertheless indebted for not much less than
everything which even the most extreme reactionary prizes
as his sphere of individual freedom, we naturally agree
entirely with him that in both cases an organic relationship to
Spener’s Lutheran standpoint is lacking.
The conventicles ( collegia pietitatis) themselves, to which
Spener’s famous pia desideria gave the theoretical basis, and
which he founded in practice, corresponded closely in essen-
tials to the English prophesyings which were first practised in
John of Lasco’s London Bible Classes (1547), and after that
were a regular feature of all forms of Puritanism which
notes
209
revolted against the authority of the Church. Finally, he bases
his well-known repudiation of the Church discipline of Geneva
on the fact that its natural executors, the third estate ( Dostları ilə paylaş: |