Self-Examination, p. 183, in refuta-
tion of the Catholic doctrine of dubitatio.
60 This argument recurs again and again in Hoornbeek, Theologia
practica. For instance, I, p. 160; II, pp. 70, 72, 182.
61 For instance, the Conf. Helvet, 16, says “et improprie his [the
works] salus adtribuitur”.
62 With all the above compare Schneckenburger, pp. 80 ff.
63 Augustine is supposed to have said “si non es prædestinatus,
fac ut prædestineris”.
64 One is reminded of a saying of Goethe with essentially the
same meaning: “How can a man know himself? Never by
observation, but through action. Try to do your duty and you
will know what is in you. And what is your duty? Your daily
task.”
65 For though Calvin himself held that saintliness must appear on
notes
191
the surface ( Instit. Christ, IV, pp. 1, 2, 7, 9), the dividing-line
between saints and sinners must ever remain hidden from
human knowledge. We must believe that where God’s pure
word is alive in a Church, organized and administered accord-
ing to his law, some of the elect, even though we do not know
them, are present.
66 The Calvinistic faith is one of the many examples in the history
of religions of the relation between the logical and the psycho-
logical consequences for the practical religious attitude to be
derived from certain religious ideas. Fatalism is, of course, the
only logical consequence of predestination. But on account of
the idea of proof the psychological result was precisely the
opposite. For essentially similar reasons the followers of
Nietzsche claim a positive ethical significance for the idea of
eternal recurrence. This case, however, is concerned with
responsibility for a future life which is connected with the active
individual by no conscious thread of continuity, while for the
Puritan it was tua res agitur. Even Hoornbeek ( Theologia prac-
tica, I, p. 159) analyses the relation between predestination and
action well in the language of the times. The electi are, on
account of their election, proof against fatalism because in
their rejection of it they prove themselves “quos ipsa electio
sollicitos reddit et diligentes officiorum”. The practical interests
cut off the fatalistic consequences of logic (which, however, in
spite of everything occasionally did break through).
But, on the other hand, the content of ideas of a religion is,
as Calvinism shows, far more important than William James
( Varieties of Religious Experience, 1902, pp. 444 f.) is inclined to
admit. The significance of the rational element in religious
metaphysics is shown in classical form by the tremendous
influence which especially the logical structure of the Calvinistic
concept of God exercised on life. If the God of the Puritans has
influenced history as hardly another before or since, it is princi-
pally due to the attributes which the power of thought had
given him. James’s pragmatic valuation of the significance of
religious ideas according to their influence on life is inci-
dentally a true child of the world of ideas of the Puritan home of
notes
192
that eminent scholar. The religious experience as such is of
course irrational, like every experience. In its highest, mystical
form it is even the experience. In its highest, mystical form it is
even the experience
' ’
`
, and, as James has well shown,
is distinguished by its absolute incommunicability. It has a spe-
cific character and appears as knowledge, but cannot be
adequately reproduced by means of our lingual and conceptual
apparatus. It is further true that every religious experience loses
some of its content in the attempt of rational formulation, the
further the conceptual formulation goes, the more so. That is
the reason for many of the tragic conflicts of all rational the-
ology, as the Baptist sects of the seventeenth century already
knew. But that irrational element, which is by no means pecu-
liar to religious experience, but applies (in different senses and
to different degrees) to every experience, does not prevent its
being of the greatest practical importance, of what particular
type the system of ideas is, that captures and moulds the
immediate experience of religion in its own way. For from this
source develop, in times of great influence of the Church on life
and of strong interest in dogmatic considerations within it,
most of those differences between the various religions in their
ethical consequences which are of such great practical import-
ance. How unbelievably intense, measured by present stand-
ards, the dogmatic interests even of the layman were, everyone
knows who is familiar with the historical sources. We can find a
parallel to-day only in the at bottom equally superstitious belief
of the modern proletariat in what can be accomplished and
proved by science.
67 Baxter, The Saints’ Everlasting Rest, I, p. 6, answers to the ques-
tion: “Whether to make salvation our end be not mercenary or
legal? It is property mercenary when we expect it as wages for
work done. . . . Otherwise it is only such a mercenarism as
Christ commandeth . . . and if seeking Christ be mercenary, I
desire to be so mercenary.” Nevertheless, many Calvinists who
are considered orthodox do not escape falling into a very crass
sort of mercenariness. According to Bailey, Praxis pietatis,
p. 262, alms are a means of escaping temporal punishment.
notes
193
Other theologians urged the damned to perform good works,
since their damnation might thereby become somewhat more
bearable, but the elect because God will then not only love
them without cause but ob causam, which shall certainly some-
time have its reward. The apologists have also made certain
small concessions concerning the significance of good works
for the degree of salvation (Schneckenburger, op. cit., p. 101).
68 Here also it is absolutely necessary, in order to bring out the
characteristic differences, to speak in terms of ideal types, thus
in a certain sense doing violence to historical reality. But with-
out this a clear formulation would be quite impossible con-
sidering the complexity of the material. In how far the differ-
ences which we here draw as sharply as possible were merely
relative, would have to be discussed separately. It is, of course,
true that the official Catholic doctrine, even in the Middle Ages,
itself set up the ideal of a systematic sanctification of life as a
whole. But it is just as certain (1) that the normal practice of the
Church, directly on account of its most effective means of dis-
cipline, the confession, promoted the unsystematic way of life
discussed in the text, and further (2) that the fundamentally
rigorous and cold atmosphere in which he lived and the abso-
lute isolation of the Calvinst were utterly foreign to mediæval
lay-Catholicism.
69 The absolutely fundamental importance of this factor will, as
has already once been pointed out, gradually become clear in
the essays on the Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen.
70 And to a certain extent also to the Lutheran. Luther did not wish
to eliminate this last vestige of sacramental magic.
71 Compare, for instance, Sedgwick, Buss- und Gnadenlehre (Ger-
man by Roscher, 1689). The repentant man has a fast rule to
which he holds himself exactly, ordering thereby his whole life
and conduct (p. 591). He lives according to the law, shrewdly,
wakefully, and carefully (p. 596). Only a permanent change in
the whole man can, since it is a result of predestination, cause
this (p. 852). True repentance is always expressed in conduct
(p. 361). The difference between only morally good work and
opera spiritualia lies, as Hoornbeek ( op. cit., I, IX, chap. ii)
notes
194
explains, in the fact that the latter are the results of a regenerate
life (op. cit., 1, p. 160). A continuous progress in them is dis-
cernible which can only be achieved by the supernatural
influence of God’s grace (p. 150). Salvation results from the
transformation of the whole man through the grace of God
(pp. 190 f.). These ideas are common to all Protestantism, and
are of course found in the highest ideals of Catholicism as well.
But their consequences could only appear in the Puritan
movements of worldly asceticism, and above all only in those
cases did they have adequate psychological sanctions.
72 The latter name is, especially in Holland, derived from those
who modelled their lives precisely on the example of the Bible
(thus with Voet). Moreover, the name Methodists occurs
occasionally among the Puritans in the seventeenth century.
73 For, as the Puritan preachers emphasize (for instance Bunyan
in the Pharisee and the Publican, Works of the Puritan Divines,
p. 126), every single sin would destroy everything which might
have been accumulated in the way of merit by good works in a
lifetime, if, which is unthinkable, man were alone able to
accomplish anything which God should necessarily recognize
as meritorious, or even could live in perfection for any length of
time. Thus Puritanism did not think as did Catholicism in terms
of a sort of account with calculation of the balance, a simile
which was common even in antiquity, but of the definite alter-
native of grace or damnation held for a life as a whole. For
suggestions of the bank account idea see note 102 below.
74 Therein lies the distinction from the mere Legality and Civility
which Bunyan has living as associates of Mr. Worldly-Wiseman
in the City called Morality.
75 Charnock, Self-Examination (Works of the Puritan Divines,
p. 172): “Reflection and knowledge of self is a prerogative of a
rational nature.” Also the footnote: “Cogito, ergo sum, is the
first principle of the new philosophy.”
76 This is not yet the place to discuss the relationship of the
theology of Duns Scotus to certain ideas of ascetic Protestant-
ism. It never gained official recognition, but was at best toler-
ated and at times proscribed. The later specific repugnance of
notes
195
the Pietists to Aristotelean philosophy was shared by Luther, in
a somewhat different sense, and also by Calvin in conscious
antagonism to Catholicism (cf. Instit. Christ, II, chap. xii, p. 4; IV,
chap. xvii, p. 24). The “primacy of the will”, as Kahl has put it, is
common to all these movements.
77 Thus, for instance, the article on “Asceticism” in the Catholic
Church Lexicon defines its meaning entirely in harmony with
its highest historical manifestations. Similarly Seeberg in the
Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche. For the
purpose of this study we must be allowed to use the concept as
we have done. That it can be defined in other ways, more
broadly as well as more narrowly, and is generally so defined, I
am well aware.
78 In Hudibras (1st Song, 18, 19) the Puritans are compared with
the bare-foot Franciscans. A report of the Genoese Ambas-
sador, Ficeschi, calls Cromwell’s army an assembly of monks.
79 In view of the close relationship between otherworldly monastic
asceticism and active worldly asceticism, which I here expressly
maintain, I am surprised to find Brentano (op. cit., p. 134 and
elsewhere) citing the ascetic labour of the monks and its rec-
ommendation against me. His whole “Exkurs” against me
culminates in that. But that continuity is, as anyone can see, a
fundamental postulate of my whole thesis: the Reformation
took rational Christian asceticism and its methodical habits out
of the monasteries and placed them in the service of active life
in the world. Compare the following discussion, which has not
been altered.
80 So in the many reports of the trials of Puritan heretics cited in
Neal’s History of the Puritans and Crosby’s English Baptists.
81 Sanford, op. cit. (and both before and after him many others),
has found the origin of the ideal of reserve in Puritanism.
Compare on that ideal also the remarks of James Bryce on the
American college in Vol. II of his American Commonwealth.
The ascetic principle of self-control also made Puritanism one
of the fathers of modern military discipline. (On Maurice of
Orange as a founder of modern army organization, see Roloff,
Preuss. Jahrb., 1903, III, p. 255.) Cromwell’s Ironsides, with
notes
196
cocked pistols in their hands, and approaching the enemy at a
brisk trot without shooting, were not the superiors of the Cava-
liers by virtue of their fierce passion, but, on the contrary,
through their cool self-control, which enabled their leaders
always to keep them well in hand. The knightly storm-attack of
the Cavaliers, on the other hand, always resulted in dissolving
their troops into atoms. See Firth, Cromwell’s Army.
82 See especially Windelband, Ueber Willensfreiheit, pp. 77 ff.
83 Only not so unmixed. Contemplation, sometimes combined
with emotionalism, is often combined with these rational
elements. But again contemplation itself is methodically
regulated.
84 According to Richard Baxter everything is sinful which is con-
trary to the reason given by God as a norm of action. Not only
passions which have a sinful content, but all feelings which are
senseless and intemperate as such. They destroy the counten-
ance and, as things of the flesh, prevent us from rationally
directing all action and feeling to God, and thus insult Him.
Compare what is said of the sinfulness of anger ( Christian Dir-
ectory, second edition, 1698, p. 285. Tauler is cited on p. 287).
On the sinfulness of anxiety, Ebenda, I, p. 287. That it is idolatry
if our appetite is made the “rule or measure of eating” is main-
tained very emphatically ( op. cit., I, pp. 310, 316, and else-
where). In such discussions reference is made everywhere to
the Proverbs and also to Plutarch’s De tranquilitate Animi, and
not seldom to ascetic writings of the Middle Ages: St. Bernard,
Bonaventura, and others. The contrast to “who does not love
wine, women, and song . . .” could hardly be more sharply
drawn than by the extension of the idea of idolatry to all sensu-
ous pleasures, so far as they are not justified by hygienic con-
siderations, in which case they (like sport within these limits,
but also other recreations) are permissible. See below (Chapter
5) for further discussion. Please note that the sources referred
to here and elsewhere are neither dogmatic nor edifying works,
but grew out of practical ministry, and thus give a good picture
of the direction which its influence took.
85 I should regret it if any evaluation of one or the other form of
notes
197
religion should be read into this discussion. We are not con-
cerned with that here. It is only a question of the influence of
certain things which, from a purely religious point of view, are
perhaps incidental, but important for practical conduct.
86 On this, see especially the article “Moralisten, englische”, by
E. Troeltsch, in the Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie
und Kirche, third edition.
87 How much influence quite definite religious ideas and situ-
ations, which seem to be historical accidents, have had is
shown unusually clearly by the fact that in the circles of Pietism
of a Reformed origin the lack of monasteries was occasionally
directly regretted, and that the communistic experiments of
Labadie and others were simply a substitute for monastic life.
88 As early even as several confessions of the time of the Refor-
mation. Even Ritschl ( Pietismus, I, p. 258 f.) does not deny,
although he looks upon the later development as a deterior-
ation of the ideas of the Reformation, that, for instance, in
Conf. Gall. 25, 26, Conf. Belg. 29, Conf. Helv. post, 17, the true
Reformed Church was defined by definitely empirical attributes,
and that to this true Church believers were not accounted
without the attribute of moral activity. (See above, note 42.)
89 “Bless God that we are not of the many” (Thomas Adams,
Works of the Puritan Divines, p. 138).
90 The idea of the birthright, so important in history, thus received
an important confirmation in England. “The firstborn which are
written in heaven. . . . As the firstborn is not to be defeated in
his inheritance, and the enrolled names are never to be obliter-
ated, so certainly they shall inherit eternal life” (Thomas
Adams, Works of the Puritan Divines, p. xiv).
91 The Lutheran emphasis on penitent grief is foreign to the spirit
of ascetic Calvinism, not in theory, but definitely in practice. For
it is of no ethical value to the Calvinist; it does not help the
damned, while for those certain of their election, their own sin,
so far as they admit it to themselves, is a symptom of back-
wardness in development. Instead of repenting of it they hate it
and attempt to overcome it by activity for the glory of God.
Compare the explanation of Howe (Cromwell’s chaplain 1656–
notes
198
58) in Of Men’s Enmity against God and of Reconciliation between
God and Man (Works of English Puritan Divines, p. 237): “The
carnal mind is enmity against God. It is the mind, therefore, not
as speculative merely, but as practical and active that must be
renewed”, and, p. 246: “Reconciliation . . . must begin in (1) a
deep conviction . . . of your former enmity . . . . I have been
alienated from God. . . . (2) (p. 251) a clear and lively apprehen-
sion of the monstrous iniquity and wickedness thereof.” The
hatred here is that of sin, not of the sinner. But as early as the
famous letter of the Duchess Renata d’Este (Leonore’s mother)
to Calvin, in which she speaks of the hatred which she would
feel toward her father and husband if she became convinced
they belonged to the damned, is shown the transfer to the
person. At the same time it is an example of what was said
above [pp. 104–6] of how the individual became loosed from
the ties resting on his natural feelings, for which the doctrine of
predestination was responsible.
92 “None but those who give evidence of being regenerate or holy
persons ought to be received or counted fit members of visible
Churches. Where this is wanting, the very essence of a Church
is lost”, as the principle is put by Owen, the Independent-
Calvinistic Vice-Chancellor of Oxford under Cromwell (Inv. into
the Origin of Ev. Ch.). Further, see the following essay (not
translated here.—translator).
93 See following essay.
94 Cat. Genev., p. 149. Bailey, Praxis pietatis, p. 125: “In life we
should act as though no one but Moses had authority over us.”
95 “The law appears to the Calvinist as an ideal norm of action. It
oppresses the Lutheran because it is for him unattainable.” In
the Lutheran catechism it stands at the beginning in order to
arouse the necessary humility, in the Reformed catechism it
generally stands after the Gospel. The Calvinists accused the
Lutherans of having a “virtual reluctance to becoming holy”
(Möhler), while the Lutherans accused the Calvinists of an
“unfree servitude to the law”, and of arrogance.
96 Studies and Reflections of the Great Rebellion, pp. 79 f.
97 Among them the Song of Songs is especially noteworthy. It was
notes
199
for the most part simply ignored by the Puritans. Its Oriental
eroticism has influenced the development of certain types of
religion, such as that of St. Bernard.
98 On the necessity of this self-observation, see the sermon of
Charnock, already referred to, on 2 Cor. xiii, 5, Works of the
Puritan Divines, pp. 161 ff.
99 Most of the theological moralists recommended it. Thus
Baxter, Christian Directory, II, pp. 77 ff., who, however, does not
gloss over its dangers.
100 Moral book-keeping has, of course, been widespread else-
where. But the emphasis which was placed upon it as the sole
means of knowledge of the eternal decree of salvation or
damnation was lacking, and with it the most important psy-
chological sanction for care and exactitude in this calculation.
101 This was the significant difference from other attitudes which
were superficially similar.
102 Baxter ( Saints’ Everlasting Rest, chap. xii) explains God’s
invisibility with the remark that just as one can carry on profit-
able trade with an invisible foreigner through correspondence,
so is it possible by means of holy commerce with an invisible
God to get possession of the one priceless pearl. These com-
mercial similes rather than the forensic ones customary with
the older moralists and the Lutherans are thoroughly charac-
teristic of Puritanism, which in effect makes man buy his own
salvation. Compare further the following passage from a ser-
mon: “We reckon the value of a thing by that which a wise man
will give for it, who is not ignorant of it nor under necessity.
Christ, the Wisdom of God, gave Himself, His own precious
blood, to redeem souls, and He knew what they were and had
no need of them” (Matthew Henry, Dostları ilə paylaş: |