Gerhard und
Melancthon, as well as numerous reviews in the Gött. Gel. Anz.,
contained several preliminary studies to his great work. For
reasons of space the references have not included everything
which has been used, but for the most part only those works
which that part of the text follows, or which are directly relevant
to it. These are often older authors, where our problems have
seemed closer to them. The insufficient pecuniary resources of
German libraries have meant that in the provinces the most
important source materials or studies could only be had from
Berlin or other large libraries on loan for very short periods. This
is the case with Voët, Baxter, Tyermans, Wesley, all the Method-
ist, Baptist, and Quaker authors, and many others of the earlier
writers not contained in the Corpus Reformatorum. For any thor-
ough study the use of English and American libraries is almost
indispensable. But for the following sketch it was necessary (and
possible) to be content with material available in Germany. In
America recently the characteristic tendency to deny their own
sectarian origins has led many university libraries to provide
little or nothing new of that sort of literature. It is an aspect of the
general tendency to the secularization of American life which
will in a short time have dissolved the traditional national char-
acter and changed the significance of many of the fundamental
notes
173
institutions of the country completely and finally. It is now
necessary to fall back on the small orthodox sectarian colleges.
5 On Calvin and Calvinism, besides the fundamental work of
Kampschulte, the best source of information is the discussion
of Erick Marcks (in his Coligny). Campbell, The Puritans in Hol-
land, England, and America (2 vols.), is not always critical and
unprejudiced. A strongly partisan anti-Calvinistic study is Pier-
son, Studien over Johan Calvijn. For the development in Holland
compare, besides Motley, the Dutch classics, especially Groen
van Prinsterer, Geschiedenis v.h. Vaderland; La Hollande et l’influ-
ence de Calvin (1864); Le parti anti-révolutionnaire et confession-
nel dans l’église des P.B. (1860) (for modern Holland); further,
above all, Fruin’s Tien jaren mit den tachtigjarigen oorlog, and
especially Naber, Calvinist of Libertijnsch. Also W. J. F. Nuyens,
Gesch. der kerkel. an pol. geschillen in de Rep. d. Ver. Prov.
(Amsterdam, 1886); A. Köhler, Die Niederl. ref. Kirche (Erlangen,
1856), for the nineteenth century. For France, besides Polenz,
now Baird, Rise of the Huguenots. For England, besides Carlyle,
Macaulay, Masson, and, last but not least, Ranke, above all,
now the various works of Gardiner and Firth. Further, Taylor, A
Retrospect of the Religious Life in England (1854), and the excel-
lent book of Weingarten, Die englischen Revolutionskirchen. Then
the article on the English Moralists by E. Troeltsch in the
Realenzyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, third
edition, and of course his Soziallehren. Also E. Bernstein’s excel-
lent essay in the Geschichte des Sozialismus (Stuttgart, 1895, I, p.
50 ff.). The best bibliography (over seven thousand titles) is in
Dexter, Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years (prin-
cipally, though not exclusively, questions of Church organiza-
tion). The book is very much better than Price ( History of Non-
conformism), Skeats, and others. For Scotland see, among
others, Sack, Die Kirche von Schottland (1844), and the literature
on John Knox. For the American colonies the outstanding work
is Doyle, The English in America. Further, Daniel Wait Howe, The
Puritan Republic; J. Brown, The Pilgrim Fathers of New England
and their Puritan Successors (third edition, Revell). Further refer-
ences will be given later.
notes
174
For the differences of doctrine the following presentation is
especially indebted to Schneckenburger’s lectures cited above.
Ritschl’s fundamental work, Die christliche Lehre von der Rech-
tfertigung und Versöhnung (references to Vol. III of third edition),
in its mixture of historical method with judgments of value,
shows the marked peculiarities of the author, who with all his
fine acuteness of logic does not always give the reader the
certainty of objectivity. Where, for instance, he differs from
Schneckenburger’s interpretation I am often doubtful of his
correctness, however little I presume to have an opinion of my
own. Further, what he selects out of the great variety of religious
ideas and feelings as the Lutheran doctrine often seems to be
determined by his own preconceptions. It is what Ritschl him-
self conceives to be of permanent value in Lutheranism. It is
Lutheranism as Ritschl would have had it, not always as it was.
That the works of Karl Müller, Seeberg, and others have every-
where been made use of it is unnecessary to mention particu-
larly. If in the following I have condemned the reader as well as
myself to the penitence of a malignant growth of footnotes, it
has been done in order to give especially the non-theological
reader an opportunity to check up the validity of this sketch by
the suggestion of related lines of thought.
6 In the following discussion we are not primarily interested in
the origin, antecedents, or history of these ascetic movements,
but take their doctrines as given in a state of full development.
7 For the following discussion I may here say definitely that we
are not studying the personal views of Calvin, but Calvinism,
and that in the form to which it had evolved by the end of the
sixteenth and in the seventeenth centuries in the great areas
where it had a decisive influence and which were at the same
time the home of capitalistic culture. For the present, Germany
is neglected entirely, since pure Calvinism never dominated
large areas here. Reformed is, of course, by no means identical
with Calvinistic.
8 Even the Declaration agreed upon between the University of
Cambridge and the Archbishop of Canterbury on the 17th Art-
icle of the Anglican Confession, the so-called Lambeth Article of
notes
175
1595, which (contrary to the official version) expressly held that
there was also predestination to eternal death, was not ratified
by the Queen. The Radicals (as in Hanserd Knolly’s Confession)
laid special emphasis on the express predestination to death
(not only the admission of damnation, as the milder doctrine
would have it).
9 Westminster Confession, fifth official edition, London, 1717.
Compare the Savoy and the (American) Hanserd Knolly’s Dec-
larations. On predestination and the Huguenots see, among
others, Polenz, I, pp. 545 ff.
10 On Milton’s theology see the essay of Eibach in the Theol. Stu-
dien und Kritiken, 1879. Macaulay’s essay on it, on the occasion
of Sumner’s translation of the Doctrina Christiana, rediscovered
in 1823 (Tauchnitz edition, 185, pp. 1 ff.), is superficial. For more
detail see the somewhat too schematic six-volume English work
of Masson, and the German biography of Milton by Stern which
rests upon it. Milton early began to grow away from the doctrine
of predestination in the form of the double decree, and reached
a wholly free Christianity in his old age. In his freedom from the
tendencies of his own time he may in a certain sense be com-
pared to Sebastian Franck. Only Milton was a practical and
positive person, Franck predominantly critical. Milton is a Puri-
tan only in the broader sense of the rational organization of his
life in the world in accordance with the divine will, which formed
the permanent inheritance of later times from Calvinism. Franck
could be called a Puritan in much the same sense. Both, as
isolated figures, must remain outside our investigation.
11 “Hic est fides summus gradus; credere Deum esse clementum,
qui tam paucos salvat, justum, qui sua voluntate nos damna-
biles facit”, is the text of the famous passage in De servo
arbitrio.
12 The truth is that both Luther and Calvin believed fundamentally
in a double God (see Ritschl’s remarks in Geschichte des Pietis-
mus and Köstlin, Gott in Realenzyklopädie für protestantische
Theologie und Kirche, third edition), the gracious and kindly
Father of the New Testament, who dominates the first books of
the Institutio Christiana, and behind him the Deus absconditus as
notes
176
an arbitrary despot. For Luther, the God of the New Testament
kept the upper hand, because he avoided reflection on meta-
physical questions as useless and dangerous, while for Calvin
the idea of a transcendental God won out. In the popular
development of Calvinism, it is true, this idea could not be
maintained, but what took his place was not the Heavenly
Father of the New Testament but the Jehovah of the Old.
13 Compare on the following: Scheibe, Calvins Prädestinationslehre
(Halle, 1897). On Calvinistic theology in general, Heppe, Dog-
matik des evangelisch-reformierten Kirche (Elberfeld, 1861).
14 Corpus Reformatorum, LXXVII, pp. 186 ff.
15 The preceding exposition of the Calvinistic doctrine can be
found in much the same form as here given, for instance in
Hoornbeek’s Theologia practica (Utrecht, 1663), L. II, c. 1; de
predestinatione, the section stands characteristically directly
under the heading De Deo. The Biblical foundation for it is
principally the first chapter of the Epistle to the Ephesians. It is
unnecessary for us here to analyse the various inconsistent
attempts to combine with the predestination and providence of
God the responsibility and free will of the individual. They
began as early as in Augustine’s first attempt to develop the
doctrine.
16 “The deepest community (with God) is found not in institu-
tions or corporations or churches, but in the secrets of a soli-
tary heart”, as Dowden puts the essential point in his fine book
Puritan and Anglican (p. 234). This deep spiritual loneliness of
the individual applied as well to the Jansenists of Port Royal,
who were also predestinationists.
17 “Contra qui huiusmodi cœtum [namely a Church which main-
tains a pure doctrine, sacraments, and Church discipline) con-
temnunt . . . salutis suæ certi esse non possunt; et qui in illo
contemtu perseverat electus non est.” Olevian, De subst. Fœd.,
p. 222.
18 “It is said that God sent His Son to save the human race, but
that was not His purpose, He only wished to help a few out of
their degradation—and I say unto you that God died only
for the elect” (sermon held in 1609 at Broek, near Rogge,
notes
177
Wtenbogaert, II, p. 9. Compare Nuyens, op. cit., II, p. 232). The
explanation of the role of Christ is also confused in Hanserd
Knolly’s Confession. It is everywhere assumed that God did not
need His instrumentality.
19 Entzauberung der Welt. On this process see the other essays in
my Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen. The peculiar position of
the old Hebrew ethic, as compared with the closely related
ethics of Egypt and Babylon, and its development after the time
of the prophets, rested, as is shown there, entirely on this fun-
damental fact, the rejection of sacramental magic as a road to
salvation. (This process is for Weber one of the most important
aspects of the broader process of rationalization, in which he
sums up his philosophy of history. See various parts of Wirt-
schaft und Gesellschaft and H. Grab, Der Begriff des Rationalen
bei Max Weber.—Translator’s Note.)
20 Similarly the most consistent doctrine held that baptism was
required by positive ordinance, but was not necessary to salva-
tion. For that reason the strictly Puritan Scotch and English
Independents were able to maintain the principle that children
of obvious reprobates should not be baptized (for instance,
children of drunkards). An adult who desired to be baptized,
but was not yet ripe for the communion, the Synod of Edam of
1586 (Art. 32, 1) recommended should be baptized only if his
conduct were blameless, and he should have placed his desires
sonder superstitie.
21 This negative attitude toward all sensuous culture is, as Dow-
den, op. cit., shows, a very fundamental element of Puritanism.
22 The expression individualism includes the most heterogeneous
things imaginable. What is here understood by it will, I hope, be
clear from the following discussion. In another sense of the
word, Lutheranism has been called individualistic, because it
does not attempt any ascetic regulation of life. In yet another
quite different sense the word is used, for example, by Dietrich
Schäfer when in his study, “Zur Beurteilung des Wormser
Konkordats”, Abh. d. Berl. Akad. (1905), he calls the Middle
Ages the era of pronounced individuality because, for the
events relevant for the historian, irrational factors then had a
notes
178
significance which they do not possess to-day. He is right, but
so perhaps are also those whom he attacks in his remarks, for
they mean something quite different, when they speak of indi-
viduality and individualism. Jacob Burchhardt’s brilliant ideas
are to-day at least partly out of date, and a thorough analysis of
these concepts in historical terms would at the present time be
highly valuable to science. Quite the opposite is, of course, true
when the play impulse causes certain historians to define the
concept in such a way as to enable them to use it as a label for
any epoch of history they please.
23 And in a similar, though naturally less sharp, contrast to the
later Catholic doctrine. The deep pessimism of Pascal, which
also rests on the doctrine of predestination, is, on the other
hand, of Jansenist origin, and the resulting individualism of
renunciation by no means agrees with the official Catholic pos-
ition. See the study by Honigsheim on the French Jansenists,
referred to in Chap. 3. note 10.
24 The same holds for the Jansenists.
25 Bailey, Praxis pietatis (German edition, Leipzig, 1724); p. 187.
Also P. J. Spener in his Theologische Bedenken (according to
third edition, Halle, 1712) adopts a similar standpoint. A friend
seldom gives advice for the glory of God, but generally for
mundane (though not necessarily egotistical) reasons. “He [the
knowing man] is blind in no man’s cause, but best sighted in his
own. He confines himself to the circle of his own affairs and
thrusts not his fingers into needless fires. He sees the falseness
of it [the world] and therefore learns to trust himself ever, others
so far as not to be damaged by their disappointment”, is the
philosophy of Thomas Adams (Works of the Puritan Divines,
p. 11). Bailey (Praxis pietatis, p. 176) further recommends every
morning before going out among people to imagine oneself
going into a wild forest full of dangers, and to pray God for the
“cloak of foresight and righteousness”. This feeling is charac-
teristic of all the ascetic denominations without exception, and
in the case of many Pietists led directly to a sort of hermit’s life
within the world. Even Spangenberg in the (Moravian) Idea fides
fratum, p. 382, calls attention with emphasis to Jer. xvii. 5:
notes
179
“Cursed is the man who trusteth in man.” To grasp the peculiar
misanthropy of this attitude, note also Hoornbeek’s remarks
( Theologia practica, I, p. 882) on the duty to love one’s enemy:
“Denique hoc magis nos ulcisimur, quo proximum, inultum
nobis, tradimus ultori Deo—Quo quis plus se ulscitur, eo
minus id pro ipso agit Deus.” It is the same transfer of ven-
geance that is found in the parts of the Old Testament written
after the exile; a subtle intensification and refinement of the
spirit of revenge compared to the older “eye for an eye”. On
brotherly love, see below, note 34.
26 Of course the confessional did not have only that effect. The
explanations, for instance, of Muthmann, Z. f. Rel. Psych., I, Heft
2, p. 65, are too simple for such a highly complex psychological
problem as the confessional.
27 This is a fact which is of especial importance for the interpret-
ation of the psychological basis of Calvinistic social organiza-
tions. They all rest on spiritually individualistic, rational
motives. The individual never enters emotionally into them.
The glory of God and one’s own salvation always remain above
the threshold of consciousness. This accounts for certain char-
acteristic features of the social organization of peoples with a
Puritan past even to-day.
28 The fundamentally anti-authoritarian tendency of the doctrine,
which at bottom undermined every responsibility for ethical
conduct or spiritual salvation on the part of Church or State as
useless, led again and again to its proscription, as, for instance,
by the States-General of the Netherlands. The result was always
the formation of conventicles (as after 1614).
29 On Bunyan compare the biography of Froude in the English
Men of Letters series, also Macaulay’s superficial sketch ( Miscel.
Works, II, p. 227). Bunyan was indifferent to the denominational
distinctions within Calvinism, but was himself a strict Calvinis-
tic Baptist.
30 It is tempting to refer to the undoubted importance for the
social character of Reformed Christianity of the necessity for
salvation, following from the Calvinistic idea of “incorporation
into the body of Christ” (Calvin, Instit. Christ, III, 11, 10), of
notes
180
reception into a community conforming to the divine prescrip-
tions. From our point of view, however, the centre of the prob-
lem is somewhat different. That doctrinal tenet could have
been developed in a Church of purely institutional character
( anstaltsmässig), and, as is well known, this did happen. But in
itself it did not possess the psychological force to awaken the
initiative to form such communities nor to imbue them with
the power which Calvinism possessed. Its tendency to form a
community worked itself out very largely in the world outside
the Church organizations ordained by God. Here the belief that
the Christian proved (see below) his state of grace by action in
majorem Dei gloriam was decisive, and the sharp condemna-
tion of idolatry of the flesh and of all dependence on personal
relations to other men was bound unperceived to direct this
energy into the field of objective (impersonal) activity. The
Christian who took the proof of his state of grace seriously
acted in the service of God’s ends, and these could only be
impersonal. Every purely emotional, that is not rationally
motivated, personal relation of man to man easily fell in the
Puritan, as in every ascetic ethic, under the suspicion of idolatry
of the flesh. In addition to what has already been said, this is
clearly enough shown for the case of friendship by the following
warning: “It is an irrational act and not fit for a rational creature
to love any one farther than reason will allow us. . . . It very
often taketh up men’s minds so as to hinder their love of God”
(Baxter, Christian Directory, IV, p. 253). We shall meet such
arguments again and again.
The Calvinist was fascinated by the idea that God in creating
the world, including the order of society, must have willed
things to be objectively purposeful as a means of adding to His
glory; not the flesh for its own sake, but the organization of the
things of the flesh under His will. The active energies of the
elect, liberated by the doctrine of predestination, thus flowed
into the struggle to rationalize the world. Especially the idea
that the public welfare, or as Baxter ( Christian Directory, IV, p.
262) puts it, quite in the sense of later liberal rationalism, “The
good of the many” (with a somewhat forced reference to Rom.
notes
181
ix. 3), was to be preferred to any personal or private good of the
individual, followed, although not in itself new, for Puritanism
from the repudiation of idolatry of the flesh. The traditional
American objection to performing personal service is probably
connected, besides the other important causes resulting from
democratic feelings, at least indirectly with that tradition. Simi-
larly, the relative immunity of formerly Puritan peoples to
Cæsarism, and, in general, the subjectively free attitude of the
English to their great statesmen as compared with many things
which we have experienced since 1878 in Germany positively
and negatively. On the one hand, there is a greater willingness
to give the great man his due, but, on the other, a repudiation of
all hysterical idolization of him and of the naïve idea that polit-
ical obedience could be due anyone from thankfulness. On the
sinfulness of the belief in authority, which is only permissible in
the form of an impersonal authority, the Scriptures, as well as
of an excessive devotion to even the most holy and virtuous of
men, since that might interfere with obedience to God, see
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