Süleyman.
52 Buzov, “The Lawgiver and His Lawmakers” p. 202.
53 Akgündüz, Osmanlı Kanunnameleri, pp. 63-188, here p. 88.
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the sacred Islamic law, the Sharia. Not the “people of the pen” perform here,
but the “people of the sword”, who make their swords speak in defence of the
cause of the Ottoman ruler, in his capacity of sultan, a worldly power and pro-
tector of the Ottoman realm. On the other hand, there is the prose text, which
paints a picture of Sharia. The policy against the ‘Azāle is one that presented
not as siyāseten but as şer‘an, one obliged by the Quran, that is, legitimized
by God’s Word. Here, we find the “people of the pen” who yield the pen and
the Book as a sword in defence of the cause of the Ottoman ruler, now in his
capacity of the imam/caliph, the representative of God’s Prophet and guardian
of the Umma.
By thus zooming out, we can fully appreciate these texts as literary reflections
of siyāset and Sharia, as two important strands of legitimation in the Ottoman
imperial project. In relation to this, it is important to stress the fact that the
meaning of the ‘Azāle-Nāmes — indeed, of any literary work — is construct-
ed not only textually, but also extra-textually. Consequently, any interpretive
effort needs to be informed by extra-textual elements as well. In this light,
it is interesting to observe the ways in which these two strands of legitima-
tion “wrote themselves differently into” the ‘Azāle-Nāmes, both textually and
extra-textually. Even though we are dealing with a single author (Muḥyī), a
common language (Ottoman Turkish) and a shared title (‘Azāle-Nāme), we are
faced with two very different works: different in terms of genre (mesnevī ver-
sus risāle), in terms of linguistic register (Persianizing versus Arabicizing Otto-
man Turkish), and in terms of discursive spheres (Firdawsian versus Quranic).
Clearly, Muḥyī tailored the texts for the audience he had in mind. In order for
his communication to be as strong as possible, he made sensible choices in
terms of genre and register, drawing on very distinct knowledge systems and
cultural literacy, making sure that all these textual building blocks were neatly
aligned. Siyāset neatly aligns with mesnevī, with a Persianate vocabulary, and
with Pre-Islamic figurative language. Sharia, on the other hand, requires the
Quran and stern Arabic, and its technicalities were best served by prose, not
poetry.
When we now juxtapose the two ‘Azāle-Nāmes, what happens? By doing so,
I argue, these texts combine into a powerful literary diptych. This is not to
say that the texts ought to be read together. Obviously, as in any diptych, the
two texts can be read as stand-alone signifiers, so to speak: each text comes
with its own meaning, and can be appreciated accordingly by an audience.
Yet, so I argue, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Mutually comple-
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menting and affecting each other’s meaning, the two texts reach their fullest
potential only and precisely through their juxtaposition. What then is their
fullest meaning? Juxtaposed, the two texts were very much in tune with de-
velopments at the imperial centre, as they reify the Ottoman vision of empire.
In the 1525 preamble, referred to above, crimes had multiplied to such an ex-
tent that “disputes and feuds could no longer be decided by the sword of the
tongue (tīġ-i zebān) of the guardians of the holy law, but required the tongue
of the sword (zebān-i tīġ) of those empowered to inflict heavy punishment.”
Clearly, in those cases where the canonical “sword of the tongue” failed, the
Ottomans made their extra-canonical “sword” speak instead. Our two texts,
dated some 70 years later, evoke the same instruments of empire, at least so I
argued: in the mesnevī, Muḥyī presents the “tongue of the sword”; in the risāle,
he presents the “sword of the tongue”. There is one difference, however: we
can no longer distinguish the canonical from the extra-canonical. The sol-
dier’s “sword” does not come to the aid of the judge’s “tongue”, as some sort
of extra-canonical backup for those instances where the canonical falls short.
Instead, the “tongue” of the soldiers’ “sword” is the judges’; and the “sword” of
the judges’ “tongue” is the soldiers’!
In a nutshell, when juxtaposed, what is it that these texts “do”? The reality
that these shape is one where siyāset and Sharia coincide. The sultan’s siyāset
is nothing but the implementation of the “correct” interpretation of the Sha-
ria, and the Sharia is nothing but the divinely sanctioned rationale of siyāset.
Sultan and imam/caliph merge, as do soldier and judge. Whatever words the
soldiers’ swords utter, these are the judges’ words; and whatever swords the
judges’ tongues yield, these are the soldiers’ swords. Harassing people, drink-
ing wine and local highway robbery to the detriment of a local Ottoman cause
now amount to Quranic brigandage and waging war upon the Islamic Umma
(ḥirābe). Hizebrān u bebrān setting out on an ılġar and fighting upon the sultan’s
path now equal mücāhidūn setting out on a cihād and fighting upon God’s path.
In short, juxtaposed, the two texts combine into a vision of siyāset şer‘īye. They
reify a vision in which the sultan’s rule is in full accordance with God’s word,
is justified by it, and, in fact, is nothing but its implementation.
54
This partic-
ular vision of empire is not the vision as it transpired in the 1525 preamble;
54 Siyāset şer‘īye is not to be misunderstood. Not only was it a “vision” rather than a “given”,
it was also two-pronged, produced as much through adjusting the siyāset to make it fit to
Sharia, as through directing a particular understanding of Sharia to make it fit to siyāset.
Compare to Burak G., “According to His Exalted Ḳânûn”, pp. 74-86.
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instead, it is the updated vision, as it was championed first and foremost by
Ebū’s-Su‘ūd Efendi.
55
V. A Sufi performing empire
In one of his articles, “Aspects of Legitimation of Ottoman Rule as Reflected in
the Preambles to Two Early Liva Kanunnameler”, Abou-El-Haj observed that,
“We, as historians, are the ones who give the document its historical mean-
ing through interpretation. The premise is that the document does not
speak, in and of itself, and especially only through internal analysis, but
has to be made to speak (...).”
56
This first call, I believe, has been answered, as I have made two minor texts of
Muḥyī speak. In fact, I made them speak loud enough as to reach beyond their
circumscribed spatial and temporal locality of Cairo and Giza in the 1590s, and
to bear on a range of 16
th
century imperial-wide transformative trends, such as
institutionalization of Sufism and legal Hanafization.
In this respect, an excellent case in point was offered by Muḥyī’s emulation of
Ebū’s-Su‘ūd’s tefsīr, and this leads us to a second summons made by Abou-El-
Haj in that same article:
“Most studies that focus on ideology in Ottoman history have portrayed
it as a unilateral imposition by the ruling class on a seemingly passive
population. Few scholars seem to emphasize the reciprocal dimension of
ideology.”
57
This second call too I have answered. In the ‘Azāle-Nāmes, Muḥyī discursively
produced not only his own identity, but also that of the Ottoman Empire. He
did not do so in splendid isolation, but in a reciprocal dialogue with other
55 Compare to Ergene’s observations regarding ‘adālet-nāmes, in which she sees the Ottoman
sultan depicted both as imam and as the archetypical benevolent despot, Ḫusrev. Indeed,
she noticed “the existence of not one but two distinct images of just rulership”. On the one
hand, there is the imam, whose authority “is derived from, and limited by, the dictates of
religion”, the “executive and the representative of the sharia”, in line with “the basic ideals
of the classical Hanafi definitions of caliphate”. On the other hand, there is the sultan, “who
wants to prove his Husrev-like character”, and who “will not hesitate to use the ‘sword of
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