and the de
finition of what constitute crimes varies from one jurisdiction to another and from time to time. For instance, in the past,
homosexual conduct was a crime in the United Kingdom, but the laws making homosexual conduct a criminal act were repealed in
1967. Thus, while homosexual conduct is currently legal in the United Kingdom, it remains unlawful and illegal in many countries
in the world.
Despite the varied meaning and de
finition of crime, a widely held view is that crime in general, and the different types of crime
are not evenly distributed across space. In other words, one is likely to identify areas where, for example, concentration of property
crimes such as burglary and theft may be high or low, while in other places, one will
find high or low concentration of violent crimes
such as assault, rape, or armed robbery. The occurrence of these crime events and their extent can be explained by the social and
spatial structures that exist in spaces where these crimes occur and the process that shape these structures.
Within the context of the changing theoretical perspectives on the geographical dimensions of crime, a core focus has been on
who commits crime and where and why crimes take place in particular environments. This perspective examines the social condi-
tions in places and how these conditions can propel or facilitate criminogenic tendencies in the environment. Another perspective
shifts from the perpetrator to how crime can be prevented by altering or modifying the environment within which crimes are likely
to occur. Here, the physical design features of the built environment are given much prominence. Within this perspective of altering
the physical environment to prevent crime, emphasis is placed on how human activities and their routine spatial engagement attract
or repel crime, thus creating varied spaces and patterns of crime.
Social Ecological Perspective
Prior to the 1900s, there were efforts by scholars to understand the distribution of crime and whether distributions are coterminous
with certain social conditions. In his 1833 book, Essays on the Moral Statistics of France, Andre-Michel Guerry sought to map out crime
and social variables such as literacy rate and poverty. Guerry
’s work also mapped the linkages between population densities, literacy
rates, and different kinds of crime. Quetelet
’s research in Belgium also provided some insight into the linkage between environ-
mental conditions and crime and their spatial distribution. Quetelet produced a map showing different types of crime and how
criminal activity is linked with different climatic seasons. He concluded based on his study that crime against persons was associated
with warmer climatic seasons, whereas crime against property was associated with cooler climatic seasons.
The work of Rawson in 1839 was also an important contribution for understanding social elements in space and the occurrence
of crime. Of particular interest was Rawson
’s argument about how urbanization provided the criminogenic context for crime
commission since urbanization led to the concentration of people and their activities and the opportunities these conditions
provide for crime commission. Mayhew
’s study in East London in 1862 also provided important insight into how the social condi-
tions of different places were correlated to different types of crime. Using crime records, Mayhew was able to produce maps showing
areas with high rates of rape incidence, assault, burglary, and abduction and how these different forms of crime coincided with
social conditions of different urban communities of varied socioeconomic disadvantage. Mayhew
’s work and techniques used in
mapping can be referred today as choropleth mapping.
The work of these scholars prior to the 20th Century was useful in several respects but was limited in terms of the ability to
explain the processes or mechanisms underlying how social conditions in space in
fluenced criminogenic outcomes including crime
and delinquency. In the 1920s, there were scholarly contributions to the study of crime from the Chicago School of human ecology.
The School was made up of sociologists at the University of Chicago who made particular contributions to understanding the urban
environment and urban change. These scholars argued that crime rates and their patterns were associated with different character-
istics in the urban environment. Burgess
’ concentric zone model showed the delineation of the city into five different zones, namely
central business district (zone 1), transition zone (zone 2), workingmen
’s homes (zone 3), residential zone (zone 4), and commuter
zone (zone 5). The different zones experienced different intensity of crime patterns. Using this model, and after examining crime
records of the city of Chicago, Shaw and McKay argued that crime was high in the zone of transition because of the social charac-
teristics of this area, which include high rate of poverty, high rate of ethnic and social heterogeneity, and high rate of residential
mobility. These characteristics increased levels of social disorganization in these areas. The attempt by Shaw and McKay to offer
explanation for crime within the context of these characteristics (i.e., high rate of poverty, high rate of ethnic and social heteroge-
neity, and residential mobility) became known as the social disorganization theory (SDT).
Underlying the SDT was the point that disorganized neighborhoods that had characteristics such as ethnic heterogeneity, phys-
ical dilapidation, concentrated disadvantage or extreme poverty, residential mobility, high rate of illiteracy, and social vices were
unable to socialize young people to adopt conventional principles and values because of the disfunctioning or breakdown of
primary institutions such as the family, church, and other informal social groups. SDT asserted that the breakdown of these primary
institutions does not directly fester crime but reduces the ability of a community to put youth groups in check or regulate their
conduct. To check crime and delinquency in disorganized neighborhoods, Shaw and McKay suggested that policy in addressing
crime should target primary institutions such as the family, church, and other community social groups since they are the basic units
for community mobilization and transmission of good moral values in adolescents and youth.
Following the pioneering work of Shaw and McKay, subsequent studies within the social ecological school sought to test
SDT and explain the mechanism through which disorganized societies were likely to become criminogenic settings. In 1989
Sampson and Grove tested the SDT to address how characteristics of disorganized societies led to the breakdown of informal social
control and which, in turn, reduced the ability of neighborhoods to check criminogenic outcomes. Sampson and Groves
6
Crime Geography
International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Second Edition, 2020, 5–10
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