In many instances, for poor communities, a vicious cycle of neglect and underdevelopment, and attempts to suppress crime
forcefully develop, further alienating and straining police
–community relationships. In cities, local and national governments,
private developers, as well as the media have tended to see the redevelopment of zongos, ghettos, and favelas as an attempt to
“inte-
grate these areas
” into cities. Residents in these areas tend to view such redevelopment schemes as attempts to evict them through
the process of gentri
fication. In essence, the neglect of affordable housing and services renders many informal settlements and poor
low-income areas un
fit for habitation, thus forming a basis for targeted evictions and demolitions. Without a comprehensive
strategy to address the aspirations of low-income communities for safe and vibrant neighborhoods, this situation will be repeated
across many areas of cities.
Role of Mapping in Understanding Crime Distribution
The role of maps for understanding the geographical distribution of crime cannot be overemphasized. From Guerry and Quetelet in
the 19th Century, right through to Shaw and McKay in the early 20th Century, to contemporary times, maps continue to be a vital
tool for visual representation of criminogenic phenomena and establishing the relationship between space and crime. A number of
technologies have been introduced within the area of cartography to make map making simple and user friendly. For instance, the
introduction of GIS, which combines spatial analysis software and hardware technologies has made mapping interactive and by
extension useful in crime analysis. Now, security agencies are able to use GIS to map out crime patterns in neighborhoods, settle-
ments, and even a whole country, thus helping in how they deploy resources into combating and preventing crime. Furthermore, to
aid in the visualization of crime patterns in digital format, emphasis is being placed on attributes such as location of the crime event
and the type and intensity of the crime.
In addition, there have been a number of techniques introduced for mapping crime patterns and distribution in space, showing
areas with high concentration and areas with low concentration. Areas with high crime concentration are called crime hotspots. Crime
hotspots refer to areas or locations where a greater than average number of criminal or disorder events occur. It may also simply refer
to areas or locations where people have higher risk of becoming victims of crime. Crime hotspots vary and may range from a city, to
neighborhood, and also to the street or block level. Patterns of crime distribution can be represented using simple map symbols or
statistical techniques. Map symbols may include graduated circles, color gradient dots, and density shading, or choropleths. Grad-
uated symbols refer to the use of dots of varying sizes to represent crime events. The size of the circle or symbol is proportional to the
number of crimes that have occurred at that point or place. It is normally used to map out crime events at smaller geographical
scales, which may include a shop, street intersections, or other locations. Color gradient dots use colors of different shades of
a dot, for example, yellow to red to depict crime intensity of a place. Density shading, or choropleth mapping, involves the use
of different shades of colors of a polygon feature to depict crime patterns. This technique covers large areas such as a neighborhood
or a city.
Indeed, GIS application and spatial data analysis have reached a point where their use has become part and parcel of contem-
porary police organizations and has allowed for modeling the spatial crime distribution patterns and for analyzing the spatial rela-
tions between crime and other demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. These have served as important mechanisms for
police investigations into criminal activities and for predicting offender behaviors, tracking, and location. In addition, the utility
of GIS and spatial analysis by the police provide opportunities for effective and ef
ficient deployment of resources and the making
of tactical and operational decisions on crime combating and prevention.
It needs to be stressed that while GIS has aided in crime prevention and control, it has also been used as a tool for the pro
filing of
certain populations, displacing crime from core to peripheral areas, or uneven deployment of policing resources. As aptly argued by
Brian J. Jefferson, GIS mapping and geoinformation technologies do not passively
“read” urban space but provide ostensibly scien-
ti
fic ways of reading and policing marginalized and racialized populations by representing them and the places they inhabit to state
authorities and the public as objects of policing and punishment. Consequently, the social problems that af
flict the marginalized are
nothing more than objects of policing and punishment, while disregarding the complex network of forces that generate these pop-
ulations and problems in the
first place. This representation reinforces the police and public perceptions of crime among certain
populations and places, which ultimately become subjects requiring police surveillance.
Conclusion
This article on the geography of crime has provided a background knowledge of the link between space and crime and how this
knowledge has been communicated and explained with different theoretical frameworks from the 19th Century to contemporary
times. The debate over the relationship between geography and crime remains, with opportunities for further insights regarding the
association between criminogenic activities and space. The central theme of major theories has been that the occurrence and inten-
sity of crime vary in space and can be understood within the context of the existing social and physical environmental conditions
within space. Crime is geographically or spatially conditioned.
It needs to be emphasized that many of the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of the relationship between crime and
geography are founded on the development experiences of Western countries where studies of crime have led to some robust
conclusions. As an academic
field of inquiry the subject of crime in general and geography of crime in particular are underresearched
Crime Geography
9
International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Second Edition, 2020, 5–10
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