D annan a simple guide to resarch writing indd

• Time allocation 
involves the researcher randomly selecting a place and time and 
then recording what people are doing when they are first seen and before they see 
the researcher. There are several sampling problems with this approach. Firstly, the 
researcher needs a large representative sample for generalisation. Secondly, for 
questions such as when, how often, and where the researcher needs to observe the 
subject(s) which is often a concern.
• Narrative logbooks 
involves the researcher maintaining a descriptive and/or 
narrative account of their observations. The diaries, however, must not only record 
description and narrative accounts but interpretations and evaluations and develop a 
framework of theory that will help in understanding the underlying dynamics of the 
business phenomena.
• Coding schedules 
are used in structured observation to record the nature and 
frequency of defined categories of behavior in the research context. The coding 
scheduled is often for recording inter-personal interactions in social situations such 
as meetings or negotiations.
Appropriate use of observational procedure
 
In evaluating the appropriate use of observational procedures in any study, the researcher 
should examine the research in terms of the following criteria:
• Was a full range of behavioral variables identified to permit description?
• What were the inferences and evaluations of behaviors and inter-related patterns of 
actions?
• Was the observer trained to identify the variables being observed?

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• Was the observer trained in the maintenance of diaries, records, and coding 
schedules?
• If there were more than one observer, what was the inter-observer reliability of the data, 
that is, what was the level of agreement between the observations of independent 
observers?
• What was the duration of observation as observations must aim at a representative 
sample of the behavior of individuals being observed?
• Was the period too short to permit sufficient observation of the entire research
situation?
• How time consuming, obtrusive and directive were the role of the observer?
• Did the researcher describe the observational situation and present an estimate of 
the possible effects of their presence as a participant-observer?