4. Clinical presentation
The SVC wall does not offer resistance to compression. When SVC lumen reduction is
greater than 60%, hemodynamic changes occur: proximal dilatation, congestion and flow
slowdown. The clinical signs of this condition are mainly represented by cyanosis (due to
venous stasis with normal arterial oxygenation) and edema of the upper chest, arms, neck
and face (periorbital initially). Swelling is usually more important on the right side, because
of the better possibility of collateral circulation in the left brachiocephalic vein compared to
the contralateral (Figure 2). Vein varicosities of the proximal tongue and dark purple ears
are also typical. Other signs or symptoms are: coughing, epistaxis, hemoptysis, dysphagia,
dysphonia and hoarseness (caused by vocal cord congestion), esophageal, retinal and
conjuntival bleeding. In the case of significant cephalic venous stasis, headache, dizziness,
buzzing, drowsiness, stupor, lethargy and even coma may be encountered. Headache is a
common symptom and it is usually continuous and pressing, exacerbated by coughing.
Epilepsy has been occasionally reported as well as psychosis, probably due to carbon
dioxide accumulation [3,4,7-14]. Dyspnea can be directly related to the mediastinal mass or
be caused by pleural effusion or cardiocirculatory impairment. Supine position may worsen
the clinical scenarios.
Fig. 2. Phlebogram showing obstruction of the SVC with azygos involvement. Blood
return is distributed through a collateral circulation, mainly sustained by branches of
the left brachiocephalic vein. Edema in this patient was more severe in the right arm than
the left.
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The clinical seriousness of the syndrome is related to several factors:
•
Level of obstruction and rapidity of development, determining the effectiveness of
collateral circulation
•
Impairment of lymphatic drainage (pulmonary interstitial edema or pleural effusion)
•
Involvement of other mediastinal structures (compression or invasion of heart,
pulmonary artery and central airways, phrenic nerve paralysis…)
Intolerance of the supine position is always linked to a severe prognostic significance for
patients with mediastinal syndromes [15]. The variation in decubitus may worsen the
already existing signs and symptoms: in the supine position, an anterior mediastinal mass
may compress the trachea or the heart by means of gravity, with possible cardiorespiratory
problems. Direct compression of the common trunk of the pulmonary artery is also possible,
although this is not as likely to happen, given that such structure is cranially protected by
the aortic arch [16].
The presence of dyspnea at rest, especially in the sitting position, carries a severe prognostic
significance in patients with mediastinal syndromes. Dyspnea at rest can be caused by either
cardiovascular or respiratory problems:
•
pulmonary congestion caused by lymphatic stasis
•
combination with pulmonary atelectasis
•
pleural effusion
•
pericardial effusion
•
direct compression of the mass on the airways, on the heart, or on the pulmonary
artery
•
laryngeal edema
Dyspnea at rest is not uncommon in the natural evolution of SVCS and it should always be
considered as a high risk factor for invasive procedures under general anesthesia. If the
shortness of breath is related to laryngeal edema, the patient should not be presented for
general anesthesia and surgery.
Superficial dilated vascular routes are the main sign of collateral circulation and appear
swollen and non-pulsating. In the case of marked obesity, superficial veins can be missing at
inspection. The variety of collateral circulation and the differences in the venous re-
arrangement are expression of the SVC obstruction site (Figure 3,4,5).
The anatomic classification includes three levels of obstruction:
1. Obstruction of the upper SVC, proximal to the azygos entry point.
2. Obstruction with azygos involvement.
3. Obstruction of the lower SVC, distal to the azygos entry point.
1. In this situation, there is no impediment to normal blood flow through the azygos vein
which opens into the patent tract of the SVC. Venous drainage coming from the head
neck, shoulders and arms cannot directly reach the right atrium. A longer but effective
way is provided by several veins, the most important being the right superior
intercostal vein. From the superior tract of the SVC, blood flow is reversed and directed
to the azygos, mainly through the right superior intercostal vein. The azygos collateral
system is eminently deep; therefore the presence of superficial vessels is usually
lacking, even if possible in the area of the internal thoracic vein’s superficial tributaries.
The volumetric increase of the vessels can be consistent and capacity may increase up to
eight times. The efficiency of this collateral route is reliable, thus the clinical
compensation is unbalanced only in the case of a rapid development of the obstruction
or if the stenosis is more than 90% (Figure 3).
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Fig. 3. Obstruction of the upper SVC, proximal to the azygos entry point. Collateral
pathways.
2. In this case, the azygos vein cannot be available as collateral pathway and the only
viable blood return is carried by minor vessels to IVC (cava-cava or anazygotic
circulation). From the internal thoracic veins, blood is forced to the intercostal veins,
then to azygos and emiazygos veins. The flow is thus reversed into the ascending
lumbar veins to the iliac veins. Direct anastomosis between the azygos’ origin and the
IVC and between emiazygos and left renal vein are also active. In addition, the
internal thoracic veins can flow into the superior epigastric veins. From the superior
epigastric veins, blood is carried to the inferior epigastric veins across the superficial
system of the cutaneous abdominal veins and finally to the iliac veins. Another course
is between the thoraco-epigastric vein (collateral of the axillary vein) and the external
iliac vein.
In these conditions, the collateral circulation is partly deep and partly superficial. The
physical examination often reveals SVC obstruction. The reversed circulation through
the described pathways, remains less efficient than the azygos system and venous
hypertension is usually more severe. For this reason, this kind of SVC obstruction is
often related to important symptoms, dyspnea and pleural effusion. The ensuing slow
blood flow may be responsible for superimposed thrombosis. In the disease
progression, renal impairment can evolve as the SVC obstruction affects the lumbar
plexus (mostly the ascending lumbar veins, left side) which congests the renal vein
(Figure 4).
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Fig. 4. Obstruction with azygos involvement. Collateral pathways.
3. In this condition, the obstruction is just below the azygos arch. The blood flow is
distributed from the superior body into the azygos and emiazygos veins, in which the
flow is inverted, to the IVC tributaries. In this type of case, the superficial collateral
system is not always evident but the azygos and emiazygos congestion and dilatation
are usually important. The hemodynamic changes lead to edema and cyanosis of the
upper chest and pleural effusion. Pleural effusion is often slowly-growing and right-
sided, probably due to anatomical reasons: there is a wider anastomosis between
emiazygos and IVC than between azygos and IVC [17] (Figure 5).
Fig. 5. Obstruction of the lower SVC, distal to the azygos entry point. Collateral pathways.
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