network of the upper chest may support the clinical diagnosis. Imaging studies are
most common radiological findings are right mediastinal widening and pleural effusion
evaluation of the mediastinal syndromes. CT imaging is widely employed in SVCS
assessment because of its large availability and short acquisition time. Intravenous contrast
should be administered, in order to provide high-quality vascular imaging. Contrast
primary disease and eventual intraluminal thrombi. Multiplanar and 3D reconstructions
may provide better image detection and definition. The contrast flow can also help to
Superior Vena Cava Syndrome
409
Fig. 6. Angio-CT scan: Obstruction of the lower SVC, distal to the azygos entry point.
Collateral pathways: in the azygos vein system the blood flow is inverted and venous return
occurs by means of IVC.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) plays a side role; it is indicated when CT cannot be
performed (e.g. pregnancy, endovenous contrast intollerance). The long acquisition times of
MRI limit its use in critically ill patients.
Invasive venography is now rarely used due to the huge improvement in vascular CT
imaging. It is currently performed only as a preliminary to operative procedures such as
stent placement.
Once the thoracic imaging is obtained, the work-up should include brain, abdominal and
bone studies in view of the probable malignant nature of the primary lesion. Recently
Fluorodeoxyglucose-Positron Emission Tomography has gained an important role in
oncology [22].
The histological definition remains the key factor for the causative treatment, in the case of
neoplastic etiology. Superficial adenopathies have to be carefully investigated in order to
find a possible source of tissue and the easiest target for biopsy. The invasive diagnostic
procedure varies largely depending on the suspected malignancy and its site. The biopsy
can be obtained through traditional bronchoscopy or echo-guided endoscopy, superficial
node biopsy, mediastinoscopy, mediastinotomy, transthoracic needle biopsy, thoracoscopy,
cervical or supraclavicular biopsies; thoracotomy and sternotomy are rarely indicated.
Operative endoscopy has gained a new significance in the evaluation of SVCS since
echography has been introduced but the best diagnostic result is still obtained by the
mediastinoscopy. Venous hypertension may increase the procedure-related risk [23-27].
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