Keywords:
ARDL bounds test; energy-growth nexus; “X-variable-growth nexus” review
1. Introduction
Since the seminal work by
Kraft and Kraft
(
1978
) on the energy-growth nexus, various cointegration
and causality methods have been used in this field and the “X-variable growth nexus” framework
in general. The most common of them have been the
Engle and Granger
(
1987
) method based
on residuals, the
Phillips and Hansen
(
1990
) with a modified ordinary least square procedure,
Johansen
(
1988
) and
Johansen and Juselius
(
1990
) maximum likelihood method.
However, some years later, it was realized that these methods may not be appropriate for small
samples (
Narayan and Smyth 2005
). Foremost, studies before the ARDL establishment, and this was
much the case for the energy-growth nexus, used cross sectional analysis through their panel data
configuration. This entailed that the countries included in those samples were not homogeneous
enough with respect to their economic development level (
Odhiambo 2009
). Unless results became
country specific, results from these studies were of little use for policy-making. This generated the need
for more sophisticated cointegration and causality methods. These econometric methods employed in
the older energy-growth nexus, have thrown light to other fields such as the tourism-growth nexus or
others, which this paper, for reasons of simplicity, terms as the “X-variable- growth nexus.”
The initiation of the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) method or Bounds test is due to
Pesaran and Shin
(
1999
), while its further development is due to
Pesaran et al.
(
2001
). It is acknowledged
as one of the most flexible methods in the econometric analysis of the energy-growth nexus, particularly
when the research framework is shaped by regime shifts and shocks. The latter change the pattern of
energy consumption or the evolution of covariates in the energy-growth models. Moreover, the fact
that the ARDL method may tolerate di
fferent lags in different variables, this makes the method very
attractive, versatile, and flexible.
The ability to host su
fficient lags enables best capturing of the data generating process mechanism.
This translates into that the method can be applied irrespective of whether the time series is I(0),
namely stationary at levels, I(1) namely stationary at first di
fferences or fractionally integrated
Economies 2019, 7, 105; doi:10.3390
/economies7040105
www.mdpi.com
/journal/economies
Economies 2019, 7, 105
2 of 16
(
Pesaran et al. 2001
). Nevertheless, within the ARDL framework, the series should not be I(2),
because this integration order invalidates the F-statistics and all critical values established by Pesaran.
Those have been calculated for series which are I(0) and
/or I(1).
Furthermore, the ARDL method provides unbiased estimates and valid t-statistics, irrespective
of the endogeneity of some regressors (
Harris and Sollis 2003
;
Jalil and Ma 2008
). Actually,
because of the appropriate lag selection, residual correlation is eliminated and thus the endogeneity
problem is also mitigated (
Ali et al. 2016
). As far as the short-run adjustments are concerned, they
can be integrated with the long-run equilibrium through the error correction mechanism (ECM).
This occurs through a linear transformation without sacrificing information about the long-run horizon
(
Ali et al. 2017
). One other aspect is that the method allows the correction of outliers with impulse
dummies (
Marques et al. 2017
,
2019
) and the approach distinguishes between dependent and
independent variables.
Last but not the least, the interpretation of the ARDL approach and its implementation is
quite straightforward (
Rahman and Kashem 2017
) and the ARDL framework requires a single form
equation (
Bayer and Hanck 2013
), while other procedures require a system of equations. The ARDL
approach is more reliable for small samples as compared to Johansen and Juselius’s cointegration
methodology (
Haug 2002
).
Halicioglu
(
2007
) also mentions two more advantages of the method, which
are: The simultaneous estimation of short- and long-run e
ffects and the ability to test hypotheses on
the estimated coe
fficients in the long-run. This is not done in the Engle–Granger method.
This paper is organized as follows: After the introduction, follows the methodology as Section
2
,
together with best practice guidelines. Section
3
contains other versions of the ARDL approach and
ARDL implementation strategies to follow in one’s energy-growth nexus paper, and Section
4
concludes
the paper.
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